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ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


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ELEMENTS 

OF 

PLUMBING 


BY 
SAMUEL  EDWARD  DIBBLE 

HEAD   OF  SANITARY   EQUIPMENT  AND  INSTALLATION   DEPT. 
CARNEGIE  INSTITUTE  OF  TECHNOLOGY 


FIRST 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  INC, 

239  WEST  39TH  STREET.     NEW  YORK 


LONDON:  HILL  PUBLISHING  CO.,  LTD. 

6  &  8  BOUVERIE  ST.,  E.  C. 

1918 


COPYRIGHT,  1918,  BY  THE 
McGRAw-HiLL  BOOK  COMPANY,  INC. 


THE    MAPLE    FSESS    YOKE    PA 


PREFACE 

In  preparing  this  manuscript  the  author  has  had  in  mind 
the  needs  of  young  men  having  no  technical  instruction 
who  are  anxious  to  become  proficient  in  the  art  of  Plumbing. 
As  a  consequence  each  exercise  is  minutely  described  and 
illustrated;  so  much  so,  perhaps,  that  an  experienced  me- 
chanic may  find  it  too  simple  for  skilled  hands  and  a  mature 
mind.  But  the  beginner  will  not  find  the  exercises  too 
elaborately  described  and  will  profit  by  careful  study. 
Years  of  experience  and  observation  have  shown  the  author 
that  the  methods  herein  described  are  entirely  practical 
and  are  in  common  use  today. 

The  various  exercises  in  lead  work  will  acquaint  the 
beginner  with  the  correct  use  of  tools  and  metals.  The 
exercises  in  iron  pipe  work  have  also  been  detailed  to  show 
the  correct  installation  of  jobs. 

Together  with  the  study  of  this  book  the  subjects  of 
Mathematics,  Physics,  Chemistry,  Drawing  and  English 
should  be  taken.  These  subjects  as  they  bear  on  Plumbing 
are  invaluable  to  the  mechanic  in  his  future  connection 
with  the  trade. 

The  author  is  indebted  for  the  illustrations  of  fixtures  in 
the  chapter  covering  the  development  of  plumbing  fixtures, 
to  the  Thomas  Haddock's  Sons  Co.,  Standard  Sanitary 
Mfg.  Co.,  and  The  Trenton  Potteries  Co. 

SAMUEL  EDWARD  DIBBLE. 
PITTSBURGH,  December,  1917. 


383697 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

PREFACE     v 

CHAPTER 

I.  Plumbing  Fixtures  and  Trade 1 

II.  The  Use  and  Care  of  the  Soldering  Iron — Fluxes — Mak- 
ing Different  Soldering  Joints 11 

III.  Mixtures  of  Solders  for  Soldering    Iron  and  Wiping — 
Care  of  Solders — Melting  Points  of  Metals  and  Alloys  .     21 

IV.  Making  and  Caring  of  Wiping  Cloths 24 

V.  Preparing  and  Wiping  Joints 27 

VI.  Preparing  and  Wiping  Joints  (Continued) 37 

VII.  Laying  Terra-cotta  and  Making  Connections  .to  Public 

Sewers — Water  Connections  to  Mains  in  Streets ....      69 

VIII.  Installing  of  French  or  Sub-soil  Drains 82 

IX.  Storm  and  Sanitary  Drainage  with  Sewage  Disposal  in 

View 86 

X.  Soil  and  Waste  Pipes  and  Vents— Tests 95 

XI.  House  Traps,  Fresh-air  Connections,  Drum  Traps,  and 

Non-syphoning  Traps 104 

XII.  Pipe  Threading 110 

XIII.  Cold-water  Supply— Test 118 

XIV.  Hot-water    Heaters — Instantaneous    Coil   and    Storage 
Tanks — Return  Circulation,  Hot-water  Lines  and  Ex- 
pansion     124 

XV.  Insulation  of  Piping  to  Eliminate  Conduction,  Radia- 
tion, Freezing  and  Noise 131 

XVI.  "Durham"  or  ""Screw  Pipe"  Work— Pipe  and  Fittings.  134 
XVII.  Gas  Fittings,  Pipe  and  Fittings,  Threading,    Measuring 

and  Testing 141 

XVIII.  Plumbing  Codes 153 

INDEX. 167 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

CHAPTER  I 
PLUMBING  FIXTURES  AND  TRADE 

Modern  plumbing  as  a  trade  is  the  arranging  and  running 
of  pipes  to  supply  pure  water  to  buildings,  the  erecting  of 
fixtures  for  the  use  of  this  supply,  and  the  installing  of  other 
pipes  for  the  resulting  waste  water.  The  work  of  the  trade 
divides  itself  therefore  into  two  parts :  first  the  providing  an 
adequate  supply  of  water;  and  second,  the  disposing  of  this 
water  after  use.  The  first  division  offers  few  problems  to 
the  plumber,  little  variety  in  the  layout  being  possible,  and 
the  result  depending  mostly  upon  the  arrangement  of  the 
pipes  and  fittings;  but  the  second  division  calls  for  careful 
study  in  the  arrangement,  good  workmanship  in  the  install- 
ing, and  individual  attention  to  each  fixture. 

The  trade  had  its  beginnings  in  merely  supplying  fresh 
water  to  a  community.  This  was  done  by  means  of  trench- 
ing, or  conveying  water  from  lakes,  rivers,  or  springs  through 
wooden  pipes  or  open  troughs.  By  easy  stages  the  trade 
improved  and  enlarged  its  scope,  until  at  the  present  time 
it  is  able  to  provide  for  the  adequate  distribution  of  tons  of 
water  under  high  pressure  furnished  by  the  city  water  works. 

In  the  early  years  of  the  trade  the  question  of  the  disposal 
of  the  waste  water  was  easily  answered,  for  it  was  allowed 
to  be  discharged  onto  the  ground  to  seek  its  own  course. 
But  with  the  increased  amount  of  water  available,  the  waste- 

1 


2  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

water  problem  has  enlarged  until  today  it  plays  the  most 
important  part  of  plumbing,  and  the  trade  has  had  to 
change  to  meet  this  waste-water  problem.  . 

The  first  simple  system  of  a  pipe  running  from  the  sink  to 
a  point  outside  the  building  was  sufficient.  As  larger  build- 
ings came  into  use  and  communities  were  more  thickly 
populated,  the  plumbing  problem  demanded  thought  and 
intense  study.  The  waste  pipes  from  fixtures  had  to  be  so 
arranged  that  it  would  be  impossible  for  foul  odors  and 
germ-laden  air  to  enter  the  building  through  a  plumbing 
fixture.  The  importance  of  this  is  evidenced  by  the  plumb- 
ing laws  now  in  use  throughout  the  country. 

One  of  the  first  plumbing  fixtures  put  into  common  use 
was  a  hollowed-out  stone  which  served  as  a  sink.  It  was 
with  considerable  interest  that  the  writer  saw  a  sink  of  this 
kind  in  actual  use  in  the  summer  of  1915,  at  a  house  in  a 
New  England  village.  This  sink  had  been  in  service  for 
about  100  years.  From  this  beginning  the  well-known 
fixtures  of  today  have  developed.  The  demand  for  moder- 
ate priced,  sanitary  closets,  lavatories,  and  baths  has  led 
to  the  rapid  improvement  seen  in  plumbing  fixtures.  In 
the  development  of  these  fixtures,  as  soon  as  a  bad  feature 
was  recognized  the  fixture  was  at  once  discarded,  until  now 
the  market  offers  fixtures  as  mechanically  fine  as  can  be 
produced.  Plumbing  fixtures  were  at  first  manufactured 
so  that  it  was  necessary  to  support  them  on  a  wooden 
frame,  and  this  frame  was  enclosed  in  wood.  The  enclosure 
made  by  this  framework  soon  became  foul  and  filthy  and  a 
breeding  place  for  all  kinds  of  disease  germs  and  vermin. 
This  bad  feature  was  overcome  by  the  introduction  of  open 
plumbing,  that  is,  fixtures  so  made  that  the  enclosure 
of  wood  could  be  done  away  with.  The  open  plumbing 
allowed  a  free  circulation  of  air  around  the  fixture  and  ex- 
posed pipes,  thereby  making  the  outside  of  the  fixture  and 
its  immediate  surroundings  free  from  all  the  bad  features  of 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES  AND  TRADE 


the  closed  plumbing.     Plenty  of  fresh  air  and  plenty  of 
light  are  necessary  for  good  sanitary  plumbing. 

The  materials  of  which  the  first  open-plumbing  fixtures 
were  made  consisted  of  marble,  copper,  zinc,  slate,  iron, 
and  clay.  Time  soon  proved  that  marble  and  slate  were 
absorbent,  copper  and  zinc  soon  leaked  from  wear,  iron 
rusted,  and  clay  cracked  and  lacked  strength;  therefore 
these  materials  soon  became  insanitary,  and  foul  odors  were 
easily  detected  rising  from  the  fixture.  Besides  these 
materials  being  insanitary,  the  fact  that  a  fixture  was  con- 
structed using  a  number  of  sections  proved  that  joints  and 
seams  were  insanitary  features  on  a  fixture.  For  instance, 
in  a  marble  lavatory  constructed  by  using  one  piece  for  the 
top,  another  for  the  bowl,  and  still  another  for  the  back, 
filth  accumulated  at  every  joint  and  seam.  Following  this 
condition,  developed  the  iron 
enameled  and  earthenware  fix- 
tures, constructed  without  seams 
and  with  a  smooth,  even,  glossy 
white  finish.  The  fact  that  these 
fixtures  are  made  of  material  that 
is  non-absorbent  adds  to  their 
value  as  sanitary  plumbing  fix- 
tures. 

Another  problem  which  is  as 
important  as  the  foregoing  is  the 
proper  flushing,  that  is,  the  sup- 
plying of  sufficient  water  in  a 


FIG.  1. — Pan  closet 
(English). 


manner  designed  to  cleanse  the  fixture  properly. 

The  development  of  sanitary  earthenware  illustrates 
how  the  above  problems  were  satisfactorily  solved.  In  the 
city  of  London  a  law  compelling  the  use  of  drains  was  en- 
forced, and  in  the  early  70's  the  effect  of  this  law  was  felt 
in  this  country.  The  introduction  at  this  time  of  the  me- 
chanical water  closet,  known  as  the  "pan  closet,"  and  the 


4  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

English  plumbing  material  which  was  brought  to  this  coun- 
try was  the  beginning  of  "  American  plumbing,"  which  to- 
day outstrips  that  of  any  other  country  in  the  world.  The 
"  pan  closet "  continued  in  use  for  some  time  until  the  "  valve 


FIG.  2. — Pan  closet  (American), 

closet"  was  introduced  as  a  more  sanitary  fixture.  Closely 
following  these  closets,  in  1880,  the  plunger  closet  became 
popular  as  a  still  more  sanitary  fixture.  The  plunger 
closet  continued  in  use  until  the  present  all-earthenware 
closet  bowl  drove  all  other  makes  from  the  market.  The 
American  development  of  the  earthenware  closet  bowl  put 


FIG.  3. — Plunger  closet. 

the  American  sanitary  fixture  far  ahead  of  the  English 
improvements,  as  the  American  earthenware  is  superior  and 
the  sanitary  features  of  the  bowls  are  nearer  perfection. 
When  the  washout  bowl  was  introduced  it  was  considered 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES  AND  TRADE  5 

perfection.  The  hopper  closet  bowl,  which  was  nothing 
more  than  a  funnel-shaped  bowl  placed  on  top  of  a  trap, 
was  placed  in  competition  with  the  washout  bowl.  There 
are  a  number  of  these  bowls  now  in  use  and  also  being  manu- 
factured. However,  large  cities  prohibit  their  use. 

To  quote  Thomas  Haddock's  Sons  Co.:  "In  1876  Wm. 
Smith  of  San  Francisco  patented  a  water  closet  which  em- 
ployed a  jet  to  assist  in  emptying  the  bowl  and  the  develop- 
ment of  this  principle  is  due  entirely  to  the  potter,  who  had 
gradually  and  by  costly  experiment  become  the  determining 


FIG.  4. — Plunger  closet. 

factor  in  the  evolution  of  the  water  closet."  With  this 
improvement  it  became  possible  to  do  away  with  the  box- 
ing-in  of  the  bowl  which  up  to  this  time  had  been  necessary. 
Closet  bowls  of  today  are  made  of  vitreous  body  which  does 
not  permit  crazing  or  discoloring  of  the  ware.  A  study  of 
the  illustrations  which  show  the  evolution  of  the  closet 
bowl  should  be  of  interest  to  the  student  as  well  as  to  the 
apprentice  and  journeyman.  The  bath  tub  developed 
from  a  gouged-out  stone,  in  which  water  could  be  stored  and 
used  for  bathing  purposes,  to  our  present-day  enameled  iron 
and  earthenware  tubs.  The  development  did  not  progress 
very  rapidly  until  about  25  years  ago.  Since  then  every 


6  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

feature  of  the  tub  has  been  improved,  and  from  a  sanitary 
standpoint  the  tubs  of  today  cannot  be  improved.  The 
bath  tub  has  become  an  American  custom,  as  the  people 
in  this  country  have  demanded  that  they  have  sanitary 
equipment  in  their  homes,  while  in  the  European  countries 
this  demand  has  not  developed. 


FIG.  5. — Modern  low-tank  closet. 

The  first  tubs  used  in  this  country  were  of  wood  lined  with 
copper  or  zinc,  and  were  built  in  or  boxed  in  with  wood 
panelling.  The  plumbing  ordinances  of  today  prohibit 
this  boxing  as  it  proved  to  be  a  breeding  place  for  vermin, 
etc.  As  the  illustration  shows,  the  woodwork  encasing 
the  tub  was  in  a  great  many  cases  beautifully  carved  and 
finished. 

The  placing  on  .the  market  of  a  steel-clad  tub,  a  steel 
tub  with  a  copper  lining,  which  did  away  with  the  boxing, 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES  AND  TRADE  7 

was  a  big  improvement  as  far  as  sanitary  reasons  were 
concerned  as  well  as  a  reduction  in  cost  of  tubs.  These 
tubs  were  set  up  on  legs  which  permitted  cleaning  and 
provided  good  ventilation  all  around.  With  these  features 
they  drove  all  other  tubs  from  the  market.  The  copper 


FIG.  6.— Encased  bath  tub. 

and  zinc  were  found  to  be  hard  to  keep  clean  and  they  were 
soon  replaced  by  the  iron  enamelled  and  earthenware  tubs. 
The  finish  on  these  tubs  being  white  and  non-absorbent 
makes  them  highly  acceptable  as  sanitary  fixtures.  A 
study  of  the  illustrations  will  show  how  progress  has 
been  made  in  design  as  well  as  in  sanitary  features. 


FIG.  7. — Steel  tub  on  legs. 

The  Wash  Bowl. — Succeeding  the  hand  basin  the  first 
wash  basins  used  in  this  country  were  made  of  marble  or 
slate,  with  a  round  bowl  of  crockery.  The  bowl  was  14 
inches  in  diameter  originally,  but  later  was  changed  to  an 


8 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


oval  bowl.  Like  the  bath  tub  these  wash  stands  were 
encased  in  wood,  the  encasing  being  used  to  support  the 
marble  top.  Ornamental  brackets  were  introduced  and  the 
wood  encasement  done  away  with. 


FIG.  8.— Modern  built-in  tub. 

About  1902  the  iron-enamelled  lavatory  appeared  on  the 
market  and  drove  all  other  kinds  from  the  market  at  once. 
The  reason  for  this  is  clear.  The  marble  stands 


were 


FIG.  9. — Encased  wash  bowl. 

absorbent  and  were  made  with  three  parts,  top,  back,  and 
bowl;  the  enamelled  iron  lavatory  is  made  all  in  one  piece 
of  material  non-absorbent.  A  study  of  the  illustrations 
will  show  clearly  how  the  lavatory  has  been  improved. 


PLUMBING  FIXTURES  AND  TRADE  9 

Strange  to  say,  in  all  plumbing  fixtures,  and  especially  the 
lavatory,  as  improvements  were  made  to  make  them  more 
sanitary  a  reduction  has  been  made  in  the  price  of  an 
individual  fixture. 


FIG.  10. 


FIG.  11. — Bath  room  of  early  80's.     All  fixtures  are  enclosed. 

The  development  of  the  urinal,  showers,  wash  trays, 
drinking  fountains  and  other  fixtures  I  will  not  attempt  to 
cover.  As  the  demand  has  been  evident  for  fixtures  of 
certain  types,  the  plumber  has  been  alert  to  anticipate  and 


10 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


supply  it.  There  is  need,  however,  for  improvement  in 
all  our  fixtures,  especially  that  part  which  connects  with  the 
waste  pipes,  also  the  hanging,  that  is  the  arrangement  or 
lack  of  arrangement  for  hanging  fixtures  to  the  wall.  The 
waste  and  overflow  of  all  fixtures  need  considerable  change 
to  make  them  sanitary.  The  opportunity  is,  therefore, 


FIG.  12. 

before  anyone  who  will  apply  himself  to  this  development. 
Much  money,  thought,  and  time  have  been  spent  by  the 
manufacturers  of  iron  enamelled  ware  and  by  the  potteries 
to  gather  suggestions  made  by  the  plumber  in  regard  to 
fixtures,  and  then  to  perfect  them.  To  these  manufacturers 
is  due  the  beautiful  design,  stability,  and  perfect  sanitary 
material  which  make  up  our  plumbing  fixtures  of  today. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  USE  AND  CARE  OF  THE  SOLDERING  IRON.     FLUXES. 
MAKING  DIFFERENT  SOLDERING  JOINTS 

The  Soldering  Iron. — The  soldering  iron  is  one  of  the 
first  tools  a  plumber  has  to  master.  This  tool  is  sometimes 
called  a  "  copper  bit"  as  it  is  made  of  copper;  and  so  through- 
out this  book  the  words  "soldering  iron,"  " copper  bit," 
"iron,"  and  "bit"  are  used  synonymously.  There  are 
several  different-shaped  irons  in  common  use  today,  but 
an  iron  shaped  like  the  one  in  Fig.  13  is  the  one  for  use  in  the 


FIG.  13. — Copper. 

following  work.  Take  the  iron  as  it  is  purchased,  having 
a  wooden  handle  and  the  copper  exposed  on  pointed  end. 
Before  it  can  be  used  the  point  must  be  faced  and  tinned. 
To  do  this,  proceed  as  follows: 

First,  heat  the  iron  on  the  furnace. 

Second,  place  in  vise  and  file  the  four  surfaces  of  the  point. 

Third,  run  a  file  over  edges  arid  point. 

Fourth,  heat  the  iron  until  it  will  melt  solder. 

Fifth,  put  6  or  8  drops  of  solder  and  a  piece  of  rosin  the 
size  of  a  chestnut  on  an  ordinary  red  brick.  (This  rosin  is 
called  a  flux.) 

Sixth,  take  the  hot  iron  and  melt  the  solder  and  rosin  on 
the  brick. 

Seventh,  rub  the  four  surfaces  of  the  point  of  the  iron  on 
the  brick  keeping  the  point  in  the  melted  solder. 

11 


12  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

The  solder  will  soon  stick  to  the  copper  surfaces  and  then 
the  iron  is  ready  for  use. 

Another  way  to  tin  the  iron  that  is  in  common  use  is  to 
rub  the  point  of  a  hot  iron  on  a  piece  of  sal-ammoniac,  or  dip 
the  hot  iron  in  reduced  muriatic  acid,  then  rub  the  stick 
of  solder  on  the  iron.  The  use  of  muriatic  acid  in  tinning 
the  iron  is  not  recommended.  In  the  first  place,  it  is  not 
always  possible  to  carry  it,  and  in  the  second  place  it  eats 
holes  in  the  surface  of  iron,  which  makes  it  necessary  to  file 
and  smooth  the  surfaces  again.  The  constant  use  of 
muriatic  acid  on  the  copper  soon  wears  it  away  and  makes 
it  unfit  for  use.  Rosin  is  easily  carried  and  applied  and  is 
by  far  the  best  to  use  in  regular  work. 

Points  to  Remember  in  the  Care  of  the  Soldering  Iron. — 

First,  proper  tinning  is  absolutely  necessary  for  rapid  and 
good  work. 

Second,  do  not  allow  the  iron  to  heat  red  hot. 

Third,  keep  the  point  of  the  iron  properly  shaped. 

Fourth,  use  the  same  flux  in  tinning  as  is  to  be  used  in 
soldering. 

Fifth,  when  filing  iron,  file  as  little  as  possible. 

Sixth,  keep  in  use  two  irons  of  the  same  size. 

FLUX 

A  flux  is  used  to  clean  the  surfaces  of  joints  and  seams 
to  be  soldered,  also  to  keep  them  from  oxidizing  and  to 
help  the  metals  to  fuse. 

The  following  list  gives  the  names  of  various  fluxes  in 
common  use,  how  they  are  applied,  and  on  what  material 
they  are  most  commonly  used: 

Flux  How  applied  Used  on 

Rosin  Sprinkled  on        Lead,  tin,  and  brass 

Tallow  Melted  Lead  and  brass 

Muriatic  acid  (reduced)        With  swab  Copper,  galvanized    iron 

and  brass 
Muriatic  acid  (raw)  With  swab  Dirty  galvanized  iron 


MAKING  SOLDERING  JOINTS  13 

Rosin. — Rosin  is  purchased  by  the  pound  and  comes  in 
chunks.  It  is  very  brittle  and  powders  easily.  Plumbers 
generally  take  a  piece  of  lj^  N.  P.  brass  tubing,  solder  a 
trap  screw  in  one  end  and  a  cone-shaped  piece  of  copper 
on  the  other.  The  point  of  the  cone  is  left  open.  Rosin 
is  put  into  this  tube  and  is  easily  sprinkled  on  work  when 
needed. 

Tallow. — A  plumber's  tallow  candle  answers  the  purpose 
for  tallow  flux.  Some  plumbers  carry  a  can  for  the  tallow, 
making  it  cleaner  to  handle. 

Muriatic  Acid. — Muriatic  acid  or  hydrochloric  acid  is 
used  both  raw  and  reduced.  Raw  acid  is  not  diluted  or 
reduced.  Reduced  acid  is  made  as  follows:  Put  some  zinc 
chips  in  a  lead  receptacle  and  then  pour  in  the  muriatic 
acid.  The  acid  will  at  once  act  on  the  zinc.  The  fumes 
should  be  allowed  to  escape  into  the  outer  air.  When 
chemical  action  ceases,  the  liquid  remaining  is  called  re- 
duced acid. 

PLUMBERS'  SOILS  AND  PASTE 

It  is  necessary  when  soldering  or  wiping  a  joint  to  cover 
the  parts  of  pipe  adjoining  the  portion  that  is  to  be  soldered 
or  wiped  so  that  the  solder  will  not  stick  to  it.  There  are 
a  number  of  preparations  for  this.  The  one  used  by  the 
best  mechanics  today  is  paste,  made  as  follows: 

8  teaspoons  of  flour. 
1  teaspoon  of  salt. 
1  teaspoon  of  sugar. 
Mix  with  water  and  boil  down  to  a  thick  paste. 

The  advantages  of  paste  as  a  soil  are  many: 
First,  it  is  made  of  materials  easily  obtained. 
Second,  solder  will  not  stick  to  it. 

Third,  if  pipe  is  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  paste  will  not  rub 
off  easily. 
Fourth,  poor  workmanship  cannot  be  covered  up0 


14  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Fifth,  when  the  work  is  completed,  a  wet  cloth  will  wipe 
it  off  and  leave  the  work  clean. 

Another  soil  used  is  lampblack  and  glue.  A  quantity  of 
glue  is  melted  and  then  lampblack  is  added.  This  needs 
to  be  heated  and  water  added  each  time  it  is  used.  This 
soil  is  put  on  pipes  with  a  short  stubby  brush.  The  work 
when  completed  with  the  silvery  joint  and  jet  black  borders 
appears  to  the  uninitiated  very  artistic  and  neat,  but  when 
the  black  soil  is  worn  away  the  uneven  edges  of  the  joint 
appear,  disclosing  the  reason  for  using  a  black  soil  that 
covers  all  defects.  The  mechanic  of  today  who  takes  pride 
in  his  ability  for  good  workmanship  will  not  cover  his  work 
with  black  soil. 

It  can  readily  be  seen  that  the  use  of  lampblack  soil 
encourages  poor  workmanship,  while  the  use  of  paste  forces, 
to  a  certain  extent,  good  workmanship  on  the  part  of  the 
mechanic. 

Before  soil  or  paste  is  applied,  the  pipe  needs  to  be 
cleansed.  Grease  and  dirt  accumulate  on  the  pipe.  The 
methods  employed  to  remove  all  foreign  matter  are  simply 
to  scrape  the  surface  with  fine  sand  or  emery  paper;  sand 
and  water  will  also  answer  for  this  purpose.  This  cleans 
the  surface  and  allows  the  soil  or  paste  to  stick  to  the  pipe. 

MAKING  DIFFERENT  SOLDER  JOINTS 

The  tools  used  in  making  the  different  solder  joints  as 
described  and  illustrated  in  this  chapter  are  shown  in  Fig.  14. 

Cup  Joint. — The  materials  necessary  for  the  work  (Fig. 
15) :  12  inches  of  J^-inch  AA  lead  pipe,  paste,  rosin,  ^  and 
J^  solder. 

If  a  gas  furnace  is  not  on  the  bench  to  heat  the  iron,  then 
a  gasoline  furnace  is  necessary. 

Each  of  the  following  operations  must  be  done  thoroughly 
to  insure  a  perfect  job: 


MAKING  SOLDERING  JOINTS 


15 


First  f  with  the  saw  cut  off  12  inches  of  J^-inch  AA  lead 
pipe  from  the  coil.  When  cutting  off  a  piece  of  lead  pipe 
from  a  coil  or  reel,  always  straighten  out  1  foot  more  than 
is  needed.  This  leaves  1  foot  of  straight  pipe  always  on 
the  coil. 

Second,  with  the  flat  side  of  the  rasp,  square  the  ends  of 
the  12-inch  piece  of  pipe.  (A  good  way  to  do  this  is  to 


TURN  PIN 


BENDING  IRON 


TOPBORER  SHAVEHOOK 


LEAD      SAW  

BALLPIEN   HAMMER 
FIG.  14. — Tools  used  for  making  solder  joints. 

hold  the  pipe  at  right  angles  with  the  edge  of  the  bench, 
run  the  rasp  across  the  end  of  the  pipe,  keeping  the  rasp 
parallel  with  the  edge  of  the  bench.  Apply  this  to  all  work 
when  necessary  to  square  the  ends  of  pipe.) 

Third,  cut  the  pipe  with  the  saw,  making  two  pieces  each 
6  inches  in  length. 

Fourth,  square  the  ends  just  cut. 

Fifth,  rasp  the  edges  of  one  end  as  shown  in  the  cut.  Hold 
the  work  in  such  a  way  that  the  stroke  of  the  rasp  can  be 
seen  without  moving  the  pipe. 


16 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Sixth,  take  the  other  6-inch  piece  of  pipe  and  with  the 
turn  pin  spread  one  end  of  it.  The  turn  pin  must  be 
struck  squarely  in  the  center  with  the  hammer,  the  point 
of  the  turn  pin  being  kept  in  the  center  of  the  pipe.  The 
pipe  should  be  turned  after  each  blow  of  the  hammer. 
The  pipe  must  not  rest  on  the  bench  but  should  be  held 


Shave  below  and 
pasfe  abore  this  line 


Rasp  to  a  point  as  shown 


Cut  away  and  shave 
inside  of  cup  as  shofyn^ 


Pasfe  outside  of 


FIG.  15. 


in  the  hand  while  using  the  turn  pin.  If  the  pipe  bends, 
it  can  be  straightened  with  bending  irons.  If  the  pipe  is 
spread  more  on  one  side  than  the  other,  the  turn  pin  should 
be  hit  on  the  opposite  side  so  as  to  even  the  spread. 

Seventh,  when  the  pipes  are  properly  fitted,  moisten  the 
tips  of  the  fingers  with  paste  and  rub  the  paste  on  parts  of 
pipe  marked  "paste."  Put  the  pipe  aside  to  allow  the 
paste  to  dry. 


MAKING  SOLDERING  JOINTS 


17 


Eighth,  put  the  soldering  iron  on  to  heat. 

Ninth,  with  the  shave  hook  scrape  off  the  paste  and  sur- 
face dirt  as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  inside  of  the  cup 
will  look  bright,  but  must  be  scraped. 

Tenth,  place  the  two  pieces  into  position  as  shown 
in  Fig.  16,  sprinkle  rosin  on  the  joint,  melt 
a  few  drops  of  solder  on  the  joint  and 
with  the  iron  melt  the  solder  on  the  joint, 
drawing  the  iron  around  the  pipe  keeping 
the  solder  melted  around  the  iron  all  the 
time. 

Eleventh,  fill  the  joint  with  solder  and  con- 
tinue to  draw  the  hot  iron  around  the  joint 
until  a  smooth  and  bright  surface  is  ob- 
tained. To  master  the  correct  use  of  the 
soldering  iron  in  this  work,  considerable 
practice  will  be  necessary. 

Overcast  Joints. — (Fig.  17.) 


NOTE. — Each 
thoroughly. 


operation    must    be    performed 


First,  saw  off  from  a  coil  of  Ij^-inch  D 


I 


FIG.  16. — Cup 
joint. 


lead  pipe  a  10-inch  piece  of  pipe.  _] 

Second,  square  the  ends  with  the  rasp, 
as  previously  explained. 

Third,   take  a  Ij^-inch  drift  plug  and 
drive  through  the  pipe  (Fig.  18). 

Fourth,  saw  the  pipe  into  two  pieces  of 
5  inches  each. 

Fifth,  square  the  ends  of  the  pipe  with  the  rasp. 

Sixth,  rasp  off  the  outside  edge  of  one  end  of  the  pipe  as 
shown. 

Seventh,  rasp  off  the  inside  edge  of  one  end  of  the  pipe. 

Eighth,  finish  rasped  surfaces  with  a  file.     Both  surfaces 

should  have  the  same  angle. 
2 


18 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


^" 


Paste  above  and 
share  below  this  line 


Paste  below  and 
shave  above  this  line 


FIG.  17. 


Solder  joint 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  19. — Over-cast  joint. 


MAKING  SOLDERING  JOINTS  19 

Ninth,  with  a  shave  hook  scrape  the  outside  surface  of 
each  pipe  for  about  1  inch  from  the  end. 

Tenth,  put  the  soldering  iron  on  to  heat. 

Eleventh,  paste  paper  on  the  joint  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

Twelfth,  fit  the  pieces  together  and  lay  on  the  bench. 
Drop  some  melted  solder  on  the  joint  and  with  the  hot 
iron  proceed  to  flow  the  solder  around  the  joint  by  turning 
the  pipe.  Use  plenty  of  flux  (rosin).  The  pipes  must  be 
tacked  in  three  or  four  places  at  first  or  they  will  have  a 
tendency  to  spread. 

Thirteenth,  to  finish  the  joint,  lift  the  iron  straight  up. 

This  joint  when  finished  will  have  a  bright  smooth  finish. 
The  two  foregoing  joints  need  considerable  practice  and 
should  be  perfectly  mastered  before  going  on  to  the  next 
job. 

SEAMS 

A  description  of  the  making  of  wiped  seams  for  lead- 
lined  tanks  will  not  be  attempted  as  very  few  are  made 
now.  The  plumber,  however,  is  often  called  upon  to  make 


Shave's. 


4^.- 

I IJL 


FIG.  20. — Flat  seam. 

a  seam  joining  two  pieces  of  sheet  lead.  The  beginner 
will  do  well  to  go  over  the  following  exercise  carefully  and 
practice  it  thoroughly. 

Materials. — Two  pieces  of  8-pound  sheet  lead,  6  by  10 
inches  each;  one  bar  of  %  and  >£  solder;  paste,  paper,  and 
rosin. 


20  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Tools. — Rasp,  shave  hook,  and  soldering  iron. 

The  10-inch  side  of  each  piece  is  rasped  and  fitted  together. 
The  edges  are  cleaned  and  paper  is  pasted  on  leaving  Y± 
inch  for  solder.  Paste  without  the  paper  can  be  put  on. 
This  will  make  a  joint  J^  inch  wide. 

Apply  the  rosin  to  the  joint,  then  with  the  heated  iron 
and  some  solder  tack  the  seam  on  the  top,  then  on  the 
bottom  and  middle.  This  will  prevent  the  seam  from 
spreading  when  the  lead  is  heated.  Solder  and  rosin  can  now 
be  put  on  the  full  length  of  the  joint.  With  a  hot  iron  pro- 
ceed to  float  the  solder  down  the  seam.  The  soldering  iron 
must  not  rest  at  full  length  on  the  pieces  of  lead  or  it  will 
melt  the  lead  and  render  the  work  useless.  The  solder  will 
flow  and  form  a  clean  neat  seam,  if  the  iron  is  at  the  right 
heat  and  the  right  amount  of  solder  is  put  on.  If  the  iron  is 
too  hot,  the  solder  will  flow  instantly  when  the  iron  is  laid 
on  it  and  the  solder  will  disappear  as  it  runs  through  the 
seam.  If  the  iron  is  too  cold  the  solder  will  not  melt 
enough  to  flow.  Too  much  solder  on  the  seam  will  cause  it 
to  overflow,  that  is,  the  solder  will  spread  beyond  the 
papered  edges.  After  a  little  practice  this  surplus  solder 
can  be  drawn  in  on  the  seam  with  the  iron  and  carried 
along  the  seam  to  some  point  that  has  not  enough  solder. 
When  the  seam  is  completed  the  edges  should  be  perfectly 
straight  and  even.  The  iron  is  carried  along  the  seam  with 
one  stroke  which  makes  the  seam  appear  smooth  and 
bright. 


CHAPTER  III 


MIXTURES  OF  SOLDERS  FOR  SOLDERING  IRON  AND  WIPING. 

CARE  OF  SOLDERS.     MELTING  POINTS  OF 

METALS  AND  ALLOYS 

The  importance  of  good  solder,  that  is,  solder  correctly 
mixed  and  thoroughly  cleaned,  should  not  be  overlooked. 
Work  is  more  quickly  and  neatly  done  and  the  job  presents 
a  more  finished  appearance  when  solder  that  is  correctly 
made  is  used. 

The  solder  used  in  the  following  work  with  the  soldering 
iron  is  called  J^  and  M-  This  means  J^  (50  per  cent.)  lead 
and  J^  (50  per  cent.)  tin. 

In  the  mixture  of  solder,  only  pure  metals  should  be  used. 
The  lead  should  be  melted  first  and  all  the  dross  cleaned 
off.  The  tin  should  then  be  added  and  mixed. 

The  solder  to  be  used  in  wiping  the  joints  in  the  following 
chapter  is  a  mixture  of  37  per  cent,  tin  and  63  per  cent.  lead. 
This  is  called  wiping  solder. 

The  following  table  gives  the  melting  points,  etc. : 


Metal 

Melting  point 

Mixture 

Sulphur  

228 

Pure 

Tin  

446 

Pure 

Lead 

626 

Pure 

Zinc  

680 

Pure 

Fine  solder  
Wiping  solder.  .  .  . 

400 
370 

50  per  cent,  tin,  50  per  cent,  lead  (wt.) 
37  per  cent,  tin,  63  per  cent,  lead  (wt.) 

21 


22          ..  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

To  recognize  fine  solder,  run  off  a  bar  into  a  mold  and  let 
it  cool.  If  there  is  a  frosted  streak  in  the  center,  the  metal 
has  not  enough  tin.  The  surface  should  be  bright.  To 
recognize  wiping  solder,  pour  some  on  a  brick.  When  this 
is  cool,  the  top  should  be  frosty  and  the  under  side  should 
have  four  or  five  bright  spots.  The  amount  poured  on  the 
brick  should  be  about  the  size  of  a  half  dollar.  If  poured  on 
iron,  the  metal  will  cool  too  quickly  and  show  bright  all 
over  the  under  side. 

To  Make  K  and  J^  Solder  or  Plumber's  Fine  Solder.— 
The  possibility  of  getting  pure  clean  metals  to  mix  solder  is 
very  remote.  Old  pieces  of  lead  pipe,  lead  trap,  old  block 
tin  pipe  are  used  to  make  solder  when  pure  metals  are  not  at 
hand. 

First,  in  a  cast-iron  pot  melt  the  lead  to  about  800°,  or  a 
dull  red. 

Second,  clean  off  the  dross. 

.  Third,  add  (to  a  15-pound  pot)  J^  pound  of  sulphur  in 
three  applications.  Each  time  mix  the  sulphur  thoroughly 
with  the  metal  with  a  long  stick. 

Fourth,  add  tin  before  the  last  application  of  sulphur. 
Mix  thoroughly. 

Fifth,  pour  off  two  bars  and  look  for  the  frosty  streak  in 
the  center.  Add  a  little  more  tin,  if  necessary. 

To  Mix  Wiping  Solder. — 

First,  proceed  as  described  in  J^  and  ^,  melting  the 
metals  and  burning  out  with  sulphur,  adding  the  percent- 
age of  tin  according  to  the  preceding  table.  Then  test  the 
solder  for  bright  spots  on  the  under  side. 

Second,  keep  the  metal  thoroughly  mixed  when  burning 
and  keep  all  dross  cleaned  off  the  surface. 

The  working  heat  of  wiping  solder  is  500°F.  Sulphur  is 
used  to  collect  all  zinc  and  dross.  The  sulphur  should  come 
in  contact  with  all  parts  of  the  metal.  This  is  why  the 
metal  should  be  stirred  when  the  sulphur  is  put  in. 


MIXTURES  OF  SOLDERS  23 

A  few  good  points  in  the  economical  care  of  solder  are 
listed  below. 

Care  of  J^  and  J^  Solder. — 

First,  do  not  drop  melted  solder  on  the  floor  or  dirty  bench. 

Second,  use  all  small  ends  by  melting  on  a  new  bar. 

Third,  put  clean  paper  under  work  and  use  droppings. 

Fourth,  have  the  mold  free  from  dirt  when  pouring. 

Care  of  Wiping  Solder.— 

First,  do  not  heat  red  hot. 

Second,  do  not  file  brass  where  the  filings  will  get  into  the 
solder. 

Third,  do  not  allow  lead  chips  to  get  into  the  solder. 

Fourth,  clean  the  solder  occasionally. 

Fifth,  learn  to  distinguish  solder  from  lead  by  its  hardness. 

Sixth,  have  different-shaped  pot  for  lead  and  solder. 

Seventh,  do  not  tin  brass  by  dipping  into  solder. 

Eighth,  do  not  put  cold  or  wet  ladle  into  hot  solder. 

A  pot  holding  about  15  pounds  of  solder  is  the  size  com- 
monly in  use. 


CHAPTER  IV 
MAKING  AND  CARE  OF  WIPING  CLOTHS 

A  good  wiping  cloth  is  essential  for  wiping  joints.  The 
exact  size  and  the  flexibility  of  the  cloth  depend  a  great 
deal  upon  the  mechanic  who  handles  the  cloth  Some 
mechanics  like  a  stiff  cloth,  but  the  writer  has  always  used 
a  flexible  cloth.  The  sizes,  shape,  and  methods  of  folding 


1                                1 

1 

r  -• 

{ 

1 

!               ! 

1 

i  i  i 

n 

1                                       1 

! 
i  *  1 

i 

L__      i          _!__. 

._!_    ....j 

j    j 

FIG.  21. — Folding  a  wiping  cloth. 

* 

and  breaking  in  as  shown  in  Fig.  21  below  have  proved 
successful.  Cloths  made  of  whalebone  ticking  are  inexpen- 
sive and  make  the  best  for  ordinary  use. 


Size  of  cloth  open 
by  14}£  inches 
by  13^  inches 
S%  by  12M  inches 


equals 

equals 

equals 

24 


Size  of  cloth  folded 

334  by  3M  inches 
3  by  3  inches 
2X3 


MAKING  AND  CARE  OF  WIPING  CLOTHS  25 

For  the  joint- wiping  jobs  to  follow,  the  above  sizes  are 
the  best.  The  largest  size,  14J^  by  14^  inches  is  used  for 
catch  cloth.  The  13K  by  13^  inches  is  the  wiping  cloth. 
The  8^2  by  12J^  inches  is  the  branch  cloth. 

Proceed  as  follows  to  cut  and  complete  a  cloth: 

First,  lay  the  ticking  on  the  flat  bench  and  square  the 
sides  14}^  by  14^  inches. 

Second,  the  ticking  should  be  cut  off  with  shears  and  not 
torn  or  cut  with  a  knife. 

Third,  fold  as  shown  in  the  cut. 

Each  fold  should  be  moistened  with  a  little  water  and 
pressed  with  a  hot  iron.  The  cloth  should  not  be  pulled 
or  stretched,  but  should  be  kept  as  square  as  possible. 

The  first  and  second  folds  require  a  little  care ;  the  corners 
when  folded  to  the  center  should  be  kept  in  a  little,  thus 
making  the  outside  edge  slightly  rounded.  If  this  is  done, 
the  corners  will  not  stick  out  when  the  cloth  is  finished. 
After  the  cloth  is  carefully  folded,  pressed,  and  dried,  take 
a  needle  and  thread  and  sew  the  open  corners  about  J^  inch 
in  from  the  edge  of  the  cloth.  By  carefully  studying  the 
cut,  one  can  readily  see  each  operation  and,  by  following 
directions,  make  a  perfect  cloth. 

When  the  cloth  is  done,  an  amount  of  oil  sufficient  to  soak 
through  about  three  layers  of  cloth  should  be  applied  and 
then  rubbed  on  a  smooth  surface.  The  oil  should  be  rubbed 
in  well  about  the  edges.  It  will  not  be  necessary  to  apply 
anything  else  to  the  cloth  to  prepare  it  for  wiping.  Paste, 
soil,  chalk,  etc.,  are  not  needed  and  do  not  benefit  the  cloth. 
When  using  oil  on  the  cloth,  it  must  not  be  used  too  freely, 
that  is,  the  cloth  must  not  be  soaked  in  oil,  as  oil  is  a  rapid 
conductor  of  heat  and  the  cloth  would  soon  become  too  hot 
to  handle. 

Care  of  Wiping  Cloths. — The  ticking  will  burn  if  allowed 
to  become  too  hot.  If  hot  solder  is  poured  directly  on  the 
cloth,  it  will  soon  burn  and  be  destroyed. 


26 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Keep  the  surface  on  both  sides  of  the  cloth  well  oiled. 
Use  both  sides  of  the  cloth. 
Use  both  wiping  edges  of  the  cloth. 

When  the  cloth  is  not  in  use,  it  should  not  be  thrown  in 
with  the  other  tools  and  allowed  to  curl  up  into  all  sorts  of 


FIG.  22. — Wiping  cloth  folded  has  16  thicknesses  of  ticking. 

shapes,  but  should  be  kept  in  some  flat  place.  A  good  way 
to  keep  the  cloths  is  to  have  two  pieces  of  wood  between 
which  the  cloths  may  be  kept  and  held  there  by  means  of 
a  strap.  The  length  of  time  which  a  wiping  cloth  can  be 
used  depends  a  great  deal  upon  its  making  and  upon  the 
care  which  is  given  it. 


CHAPTER  V 

PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS 

When  the  writer  first  started  to  carry  the  tools  for  a 
plumber  and  to  prepare  joints  for  wiping,  the  remark  was 
often  heard  that  joint  wiping  would  soon  be  a  thing  of  the 
past.  I  have  heard  this  many  times  since  from  many  differ- 
ent .sources.  Personally,  I  fail  to  see  the  passing  of  the 
wiped  joint.  More  lead  pipe  is  being  made  today  than  ever 
before,  which  goes  to  show  that  lead  pipe  is  being  used  and 
the  only  successful  way  of  joining  is  with  the  wiped  joint. 
Some  plumbers'  helpers  of  today  seem  to  think  that  joint 
wiping  is  of  no  account.  To  a  certain  extent,  I  can  sym- 
pathize with  them.  Most  of  these  boys  are  learning  a 
trade  in  large  cities  and  working  for  concerns  that  do  noth- 
ing but  a  large  contracting  business.  This  large  work  is 
carried  on  differently  from  the  small  work.  Wrought-iron 
or  steel  pipes  are  used  to  a  great  extent  in  this  work  and  a 
very  small  amount  of  lead  is  used.  Sometimes  the  job 
will  be  completed  without  the  use  of  lead.  The  boy  who 
works  continually  on  this  kind  of  work  soon  comes  to  think 
that  lead  pipes  are  no  longer  in  use.  The  writer  has  found 
that  a  boy  who  has  learned  to  do  nothing  but  screw-pipe 
work  is  absolutely  lost  and  cannot  perform  the  duties  of  a 
plumber,  other  than  screw-pipe  work.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  lead  pipe  and  cast-iron  pipe  work  are  being  used 
today  in  all  parts  of  the  country  and  in  some  parts  more  than 
in  others.  Therefore,  the  boy  must  grasp  all  branches  of 
the  trade  that  he  has  chosen  to  follow  and  not  be  a  one-sided 
man.  Joint  wiping  belongs  to  the  plumber  alone.  The 

27 


28  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

plumbing  trade  differs  from  all  other  trades  in  that  it  has 
joint  wiping  for  its  distinctive  feature. 

A  few  attempts  at  joint  wiping  will  convince  the  beginner 
that  it  is  not  the  easiest  thing  in  the  world  to  learn.  Let  me 
caution  the  beginner  not  to  get  discouraged.  He  must  have 
patience  and  a  firm  resolve  to  master  the  art  of  joint  wiping 
and  not  let  it  master  him  and  keep  him  back. 

So,  .as  we  now  start  on  exercises  of  joint  wiping,  let  the 
beginner  constantly  keep  in  mind  that  all  boys  must  be- 
come perfectly  skilled  in  the  art  of  joint  wiping  before  they 
can  be  considered  plumbers.  Keep  in  mind  also  that  the 
examination  that  one  must  take  to  get  a  plumber's  license 
contains  an  actual  exercise  in  joint  wiping.  The  one  word 
of  advice  is  not  to  get  discouraged.  Continued  practice  is 
the  only  way  to  success. 

The  soldering  iron  is,  or  should  be,  conquered  by  this 
time.  As  joint  wiping  is  the  next  exercise,  I  shall  go  over 
a  few  general  points  that  experience  has  taught  me  and 
cannot  fail  to  be  of  assistance  to  the  beginner  if  they  are 
heeded.  In  fact,  to  become  proficient,  the  beginner  should 
remember  all  the  points  suggested  under  this  heading.  It  is 
necessary  in  wiping  to  have  good  solder.  In  the  chapter  on 
solder,  I  have  given  the  correct  mixtures  and  how  to  recog- 
nize the  proper  mixtures.  The  place  where  wiping  is  to  be 
done  should  be  considered.  No  draught  should  be  allowed 
to  blow  across  the  work  as  it  tends  to  chill  the  solder  and 
pipe.  Proper  support  for  the  work  should  be  procured. 
If  gasoline  is  to  be  used  for  fuel  to  heat  the  solder,  make  sure 
that  the  tank  is  full  before  starting,  otherwise  the  fire 
may  go  out  just  when  the  heat  is  needed  most  and  the  solder 
in  the  pot  has  become  too  cool  to  wipe  with.  Have  a  catch 
pan  and  keep  all  the  solder  droppings  to  put  back  into  the 
pot,  otherwise  the  solder  will  pile  up  and  the  fingers  are 
likely  to  be  pushed  into  the  pile  and  badly  burned.  Hold 
the  ladle  about  2  inches  above  the  work,  the  catch  cloth 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  29 

about  1  inches  below.  Do  not  drop  the  solder  in  the  same 
place.  Keep  moving  the  ladle.  Do  not  pour  the  solder  on 
the  pipe  in  a  steady  stream,  but  drop  it  on.  It  is  not  a 
large  amount  of  solder  that  is  wanted  on  the  joint  at  first, 
it  is  heat  that  is  needed.  This  can  be  secured  better  by 
dropping  the  solder  on  than  by  pouring  a  large  quantity 
on  the  pipe.  The  edges  of  the  joint  cool  very  quickly; 
therefore  heat  the  edges  well  and  keep  them  covered  with 
molten  solder  until  the  joint  is  ready  to  wipe.  When  pre- 
paring joints  for  wiping,  always  do  the  work  thoroughly 
and  fit  the  pieces  together  tightly  so  that  no  solder  can  get 
through. 

Points  to  Remember.— 

First,  good  solder. 

Second,  place  of  wiping. 

Third,  support. 

Fourth,  full  tank  of  gasoline. 

Fifth,  drip  pan. 

Sixth,  ladle  2  inches  above  the  work. 

Seventh,  cloth  1  inches  below  the  work. 

Eighth,  move  the  ladle  continually. 

Ninth,  drop  the  solder. 

Tenth,  heat,  not  solder  wanted  at  first. 

Eleventh,  heat  the  edges. 

Twelfth,  careful  preparation. 

Thirteenth,  clean  grease  from  the  pipe. 

Fourteenth,  cut  clean  straight  edges  on  paper. 

HALF-INCH  ROUND  WIPED  JOINT 

Preparation. — Take  12  inches  of  J^-inch  strong  lead  pipe 
and  square  off  the  ends  with  a  rasp.  Take  the  shave  hook 
and  scrape  the  center  of  the  pipe  perfectly  bright;  a  space 
3  inches  each  side  of  the  center  is  correct.  The  size  of  the 
joint  when  completed  should  be  2^j  inches  long.  If  we 


30  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

should  undertake  to  wipe  the  joint  with  the  pipe  in  the 
present  condition,  the  solder  would  adhere  to  all  the  pipe 
that  was  shaved  bright.  Therefore,  we  take  a  piece  of  paper 
sufficient  to  encircle  the  pipe  twice  and  after  putting  paste 
on  one  side  of  the  paper  wrap  it  around  the  pipe  so  that  the 
edge  that  is  cut  straight  and  even  is  1J4  inches  from  the 
center  of  the  pipe.  Another  piece  of  paper  is  pasted  on  the 


; 

;. 

ff                 •• 

• 

4 

i    i 

\        i 

.. 

•  y        "^ 

%:     \^^^$$^$^ 

$$$^S^^$$^§S^^ 

U^^ 

r              J 

Round 

Join+ 

Wffiffi// ^Wffl/ffifflffiffiff^ 


k- 2? >l 

Round    Poin+  prepared  -for  Prac-Hce 


Pas+e  +o  line-- 


<— Paste  +o  line 


FIG.  23. 

other  side  of  the  center  leaving  a  clean,  bright  space  of 
inches.     All  the  pipe  should  be  covered  with  paper  except 
the  2J^  inches  in  the  center. 

To  Put  the  Pipe  in  Position  for  Wiping. — The  most  prac- 
tical way  is  to  take  two  common  red  bricks  with  the  2  by  8 
face  down  and  place  them  9  inches  apart.  Lay  the  pipe  on 
the  bricks  and  place  a  weight  on  each  end.  The  solder  will 
drop  on  to  the  bench,  so  it  is  best  to  place  a  piece  of  paper 
or  a  pan  of  black  iron  under  the  pipe  to  catch  the  solder 
that  drops.  The  pan  or  paper  can  then  be  taken  up  and 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  31 

the  solder  put  back  into  the  pot  without  waste.  A  cast- 
iron  pot  holding  15  pounds  of  solder  is  then  placed  on  the 
furnace.  When  the  solder  has  melted  and  has  reached  500° 
it  is  ready  for  use.  This  can  best  be  determined  by  putting 
a  piece  of  paper  in  the  solder.  If  the  paper  scorches,  the 
solder  is  at  the  right  heat;  if  the  paper  catches  fire,  it  is  too 
hot. 

Now  take  a  3-inch  ladle  and  heat  it  over  the  fire  and  then 
dip  it  into  the  solder  and  skim  off  any  dross  that  may  have 
collected. 

Wiping. — With  the  ladle  full  of  solder  in  the  right  hand 
and  the  large  cloth  or  the  catch  cloth  in  the  left  hand,  begin 
to  drop  the  solder  on  the  joint.  The  cloth  should  catch  all 
the  solder  as  it  falls  off  the  pipe.  If  hot  solder  is  held  against 
the  bottom  of  the  pipe,  it  is  heated  to  the  proper  heat. 
Always  begin  to  drop  the  solder  on  the  paper  edges,  then 
drop  the  solder  on  the  joint  itself.  Bear  in  mind  that  the 
solder  should  not  be  poured  on,  but  dropped  on  slowly. 
After  the  first  few  drops  do  not  drop  the  solder  directly  on 
to  the  lead  pipe  but  on  to  the  solder  previously  put  on  the 
pipe.  This  will  save  the  pipe  from  burning  through. 
The  pipe  must  be  the  same  heat  as  the  solder  before  the 
proper  heat  is  obtained  for  good  wiping.  The  beginner 
should  practice  dropping  the  solder  on  the  joint,  catching 
the  solder  and  working  it  around  the  pipe.  By  doing  this, 
one  becomes  familiar  with  the  feeling  of  hot  solder,  which  is 
the  secret  of  successful  wiping.  When  the  solder  works 
easily  around  the  pipe,  drop  the  ladle  and  take  the  smaller 
wiping  cloth  in  the  right  hand  and  with  both  cloths  draw  all 
the  solder  on  top  of  the  pipe.  With  fingers  on  the  corners 
of  both  cloths,  clean  off  the  left-hand  edge  and  with  the  right 
hand  draw  the  surplus  solder  across  to  the  right-hand  edge. 
Next,  clean  the  right-hand  edge  of  the  joint  pushing  the 
surplus  solder  onto  the  cloth  in  the  right  hand.  Work  this 
solder  on  to  the  bottom  of  the  joint.  Now  discard  the 


32  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

catch  cloth.  Holding  the  wiping  cloth  with  the  index 
fingers  on  lower  opposite  corners,  shape  the  under  and 
front  side  of  the  joint.  With  the  middle  fingers  on  opposite 
lower  corners  of  the  cloth  shape  the  back  and  top.  Keep 
the  index  and  middle  fingers  on  the  edge  of  the  cloth  and 
the  edge  of  the  cloth  on  the  edge  of  the  joint.  This  posi- 
tion together  with  the  size  and  shape  of  the  cloth  will  give 
the  joint  the  desired  form  and  appearance.  Particular 
attention  is  called  to  the  position  of  the  fingers  as  shown  in 
the  figure. 

The  last  wipe  should  be  a  quick  stroke  coming  off  of 
joint  on  a  tangent.  If  the  solder  is  at  right  heat,  the  cloth 
will  not  leave  a  noticeable  mark.  If,  however,  the  solder 
is  too  cold,  a  ragged  edge  will  result.  Sometimes  a  cross 
wipe  is  made  for  the  last  stroke  and  a  good  finish  obtained. 

Points  to  Remember. — 

First,  width  of  the  joint,  2J^  inches. 

Second,  allow  no  soil  or  paste  to  get  on  the  joint. 

Third,  a  3-inch  ladle  should  be  used. 

Fourth,  500°  is  the  working  heat  of  solder. 

Fifth,  paper  test  for  solder  heat. 

Sixth,  position  of  wiping  cloths. 

Seventh,  do  not  drop  solder  on  the  lead  pipe. 

Eighth,  hold  the  ladle  2  inches  above  the  pipe. 

Ninth,  wipe  the  edges  of  the  joint  first. 

Tenth,  wipe  and  shape  the  joint  quickly. 

The  above  procedure  of  wiping  will  be  found  to  work 
out  very  easily  if  followed  closely.  Do  not  pour  the  hot 
solder  onto  the  cloth  as  the  cloth  will  burn  through  and  soon 
be  useless.  A  little  more  oil  should  be  put  on  the  cloth 
after  using  it  for  awhile.  The  cloth  should  be  turned 
around  and  the  opposite  side  also  used.  The  cloth  will 
last  considerably  longer  if  sides  are  changed  frequently. 
The  solder  should  not  accumulate  on  the  pan,  but  should  be 
continually  put  back  into  the  pot.  The  "metal,"  as  solder 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  33 

is  sometimes  called,  should  never  be  allowed  to  become 
red  hot. 

The  above  method  of  preparing  pipe  is  suggested  for 
beginners  only  and  will  be  found  to  be  a  great  help  to  them. 
In  actual  practice  the  joint  mu'st  be  prepared  differently. 
The  method  used  in  trade  is  as  follows: 

The  joint  is  used  to  join  two  pieces  of  lead  pipe.  Take 
two  pieces  and  rasp  the  four  ends  square.  With  the  tap 
borer  clean  out  the  end  of  one  pipe  a  trifle,  then  with  the 
turn  pin  enlarge  this  end  just  a  little  as  shown  in  the  figure. 
Then  rasp  the  edge  off  about  %  inch  as  shown.  Take  the 
other  piece  of  pipe  and  rasp  one  end  as  was  done  in  the  cup 
joint,  making  it  fit  into  the  first  piece.  Then  place  the 
two  ends  together  and  with  the  bending  iron  beat  the  pipe, 
making  the  joint  as  tight  as  possible. 

ROUND  JOINT— 45°  TO  RIGHT 

The  next  position  in  which  the  beginner  is  to  wipe  a  joint 
is  on  an  angle  of  45°  to  the  right. 

Preparation. — To  prepare  this  joint,  proceed  as  in  the 
horizontal  round  joint.  I  will  enumerate  a  few  of  these 
points.  A  piece  12  inches  long  of  J^-inch  pipe  is  cut  off 
and  the  ends  squared.  A  strip  in  the  center,  6  inches  long, 
is  shaved  clean.  Paper  and  paste  are  put  over  the  pipe 
except  2J^  inches  in  the  center.  Grease  can  be  put  on  the 
pipe  in  between  the  pieces  of  paper  and  will  keep  the  lead 
from  oxidizing. 

Placing  Pipe  in  Position. — There  is  no  need  of  an  elaborate 
system  of  holding  the  pipe  in  position.  Take  a  red  brick 
and  place  the  4  by  8  face  down.  This  will  do  for  the  bottom 
pipe.  For  the  top  of  pipe  to  rest  on,  place  two  bricks 
one  above  the  other;  this  will  give  the  correct  position. 
Place  the  pipe  on  the  brick  and  with  a  ladle  full  of  half 
molten  solder  pour  a  clamp  of  solder  over  the  end  of  the 

3 


34  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

pipe.  This  will  hold  the  pipe  firm  for  wiping.  Place  a 
catch  pan  under  the  joint  for  solder  to  fall  in. 

Wiping. — The  method  of  wiping  this  joint  is  practically 
the  same  as  wiping  the  horizontal  joint.  The  catch  cloth 
should  be  held  parallel  with  the  bench  tilting  a  little  from 
front  toward  the  back.  The  ladle  is  held  the  same  and 
solder  is  dropped  on  as  before.  The  ladle  should  be  con- 
tinually moving  while  dropping  solder,  not  allowing  the 
solder  to  drop  twice  in  the  same  place.  When  the  solder 
has  been  worked  around  the  pipe  and  is  at  working  heat,  the 
solder  is  drawn  up  with  both  cloths  and  the  top  edge  wiped 
first,  then  the  bottom  edge;  the  surplus  solder  is  put  on  the 
underside  of  the  joint,  and  then  with  three  or  four  wipes 
the  joint  is  made  symmetrical  and  finished. 

Things  to  Remember. — 

First,  prepare  like  the  horizontal  joint. 

Second,  use  brick  to  place  in  position. 

Third,  hold  tools  as  in  horizontal  joint. 

Fourth,  top  edge  cools  first,  therefore,  wipe  it  first. 

Fifth,  hold  the  wiping  cloth  at  an  angle  of  45°  when  wip- 
ing, with  fingers  placed  as  noted  in  previous  joint. 

Sixth,  make  solder  clamp  for  holding  the  pipe. 

ROUND  JOINT  45°— LEFT 

When  the  preceding  joint  is  well  mastered  and  a  number 
of  good  joints  have  been  wiped,  turn  the  pipe  on  an  angle 
of  45°  to  the  left. 

Preparation. — The  preparation  for  this  joint  is  exactly 
the  same  as  for  the  horizontal  joint.  The  beginner  should 
turn  back  and  read  carefully  concerning  the  perfection  of 
the  joint.  Bear  in  mind  that  the  pipe  must  be  correctly 
prepared  or  a  good  joint  cannot  be  made.  The  edge  of 
the  paper  must  be  cut  not  torn. 

Placing  Pipe  in  Position. — This  pipe  can  be  placed  in 
position  the  same  as  the  preceding  one.  If  heavy  weights 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  35 

are  placed  on  the  ends  of  the  pipe,  a  bad  habit  may  be 
formed  by  the  one  learning  to  wipe.  That  is,  the  habit  of 
pressing  hard  on  the  joint  when  wiping.  In  the  preceding 
joint,  if  the  beginner  presses  too  hard,  the  pipe  will  fall 
off  the  bricks. 

Wiping. — Proceed  as  described  for  previous  joints.  The 
top  edge  must  be  favored  a  little.  The  hot  solder  will  run 
down  to  the  bottom  edge ;  therefore  less  solder  should  be 
dropped  on  it  than  on  the  top  edge.  When  the  solder  is 
at  the  proper  heat  for  wiping  it  requires  only  a  light  touch 
to  wipe  the  joint.  If  it  appears  necessary  to  press  hard  on 
the  joint  to  wipe  off  surplus  solder,  it  shows  that  the  solder 
is  not  at  the  correct  wiping  heat. 

ROUND  JOINT— VERTICAL 

Preparation. — This  joint  can  be  prepared  exactly  like 
the  preceding  one.  In  fact,  the  same  piece  of  pipe  can  be 
used  throughout.  When  preparing  this  joint  the  end  that 
is  to  be  on  the  bottom  should  be  well  covered  with  paper. 

Placing  in  Position. — The  best  way  to  hold  this  joint  in 
position  for  wiping  is  to  stand  the  pipe  upright  on  one  end 
with  the  pan  underneath.  A  piece  of  furring  strip  should 
be  run  from  the  top  of  the  pipe  to  the  wall.  Secure  the 
strip  to  the  wall  and  drive  a  nail  through  the  strip  into  the 
bore  of  the  pipe.  Place  a  weight  on  top  of  the  strip  and  the 
pipe  is  ready. 

Wiping. — The  procedure  of  wiping  this  joint  is  entirely 
different  from  that  in  the  other  positions.  The  solder  is 
thrown  onto  the  joint  from  the  ladle.  The  catch  cloth  is 
held  up  to  the  pipe  and  as  much  solder  as  possible  is  held  on 
to  the  pipe.  Move  the  ladle  around  the  joint,  throwing  a 
little  solder  on  as  the  ladle  is  moved.  Notice  now  that  all 
the  solder  runs  to  the  bottom  edge,  leaving  the  top  edge 
cold.  The  solder  that  accumulates  on  the  bottom  edge 


36  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

should  be  drawn  up  to  the  top  edge  with  the  cloth.  Then 
splash  more  solder  on  to  the  top  edge  and  as  the  solder  runs 
down  the  pipe  catch  it  with  the  cloth  and  draw  it  up  again. 
The  solder  can  be  worked  around  and  up  and  down  the  joint, 
but  always  keep  the  top  edge  covered  with  hot  solder.  The 
solder  is  likely  to  drop  off  the  joint  entirely  unless  watched 
closely.  When  the  correct  heat  is  obtained,  drop  the  ladle. 
Take  the  wiping  cloth  in  the  right  hand  and  with  the  fingers 
spread,  clean  off  the  top  edge  quickly,  then  shape  the  joint 
with  the  one  cloth.  With  a  little  practice  you  will  gain  this 
knack.  The  joint  can  then  be  wiped.  The  left  hand  can 
steady  the  pipe.  Spread  the  index  finger  and  third  finger 
to  opposite  sides  of  the  cloth  and  wipe  around  the  joint. 


CHAPTER  VI 


/    /"  Paste  and 
/     1         paper 

I. 

/       ll   Shave 

\\~—  J 

I 

\ 

M   I                   M 

3^^ 

PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  (Continued) 

TWO-INCH  BRASS  FERRULE 

Materials. — The  beginner  should  continue  wiping  the 
vertical  round  joint  until  he  is  able  to  obtain  a  symmetrical 
bulb.  A  joint  should  be 
wiped  in  each  of  the  fore- 
going positions  for  exhibi- 
tion purposes,  so  that  the 
beginner  can  have  before 
him  the  best  work  and 
strive  to  make  the  next 
joint  better.  This  next 
joint,  the  2-inch  brass  fer- 
rule,  is  wiped  in  an  upright 
position.  The  materials 
necessary  are  the  2-inch 
brass  ferrule,  6  inches  of 
2-inch  light  lead  pipe,  paste 
and  paper,  J^  and  J4 
solder,  rosin,  wiping  solder,  ]f^.p£rsff  anej paper 
catch  pan,  and  supports. 

Tools  Required.  —  The 
tools  necessary  for  this 
work  are  as  follows:  the 
saw,  rasp,  drift  plug, 
dresser,  file,  soldering  iron,  bending  irons,  wiping  cloths, 
shave  hook,  and  ladle. 

Preparation. — The  lead  pipe  must  be  fitted  into  the  brass 

37 


Surface  to  be 
finned 


FIG.  24. 


38  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

ferrule.  The  brass  ferrule  has  to  be  tinned  first.  To  do 
this,  proceed  as  follows:  file  the  ferrule  for  about  2  inches 
on  the  tapered  end.  Do  not  file  too  deep,  but  just  enough 
to  expose  the  pure  bright  metal.  Now  measure  from  the 
small  end  \}/±  inches  down  toward  the  beaded  end.  From 
this  point  to  the  bead,  cover  the  brass  with  paste  and  paper. 
No  paste  must  get  on  the  IJ^-in.  filed  end.  This  end  should 
not  be  touched  with  the  fingers.  If  paste  gets  on  it,  the 
process  of  filing  must  be  done  over  again  as  the  solder  will 
not  stick  where  there  is  paste.  If  the  brass  ferrule  is  filed 
while  the  paper  is  on  the  brass,  the  filing  will  destroy  the 
straight  edge  of  the  paper  and  an  even  joint  cannot  be  made. 
It  would  therefore  be  necessary  to  re-paper  the  brass.  Take 
some  powdered  rosin  and  cover  the  filed  end  of  the  ferrule 
with  molten  solder  using  the  rosin  as  a  flux.  Do  not  dip 
the  end  of  the  ferrule  into  the  hot  wiping  solder  to  tin  it  or 
pour  wiping  solder  on  the  brass  ferrule.  This  method  of 
tinning  the  ferrule  will  spoil  the  wiping  solder.  Always  use 
the  soldering  iron  to  tin  the  ferrule  as  explained  above. 
A  little  practice  will  develop  the  use  of  the  iron  in  the  hands 
of  the  beginner  so  that  this  tinning  process  will  be  done  very 
rapidly.  The  iron  should  be  put  on  to  heat  when  the  paper 
is  being  pasted  on  the  brass;  the  iron  will  then  be  ready 
for  use  when  needed. 

Preparing  the  Lead. — The  ends  of  the  lead  pipe  must  be 
squared  with  the  rasp.  All  kinks  and  dents  are  taken  out 
by  using  the  drift  plug  and  driving  it  through  the  pipe. 
Take  a  piece  of  smooth  pine  stick  and  start  to  beat  in  the 
end  of  the  lead  pipe  to  fit  the  brass  ferrule.  The  pipe 
should  be  beaten  in  starting  about  %  inches  from  the  end. 
It  should  be  beaten  in  very  slowly  until  it  fits  the  ferrule. 
The  pipe  is  held  in  the  hand  all  the  time  and  considerable 
time  should  be  spent  on  this  as  it  is  the  first  time  the  beating 
in  of  lead  pipe  has  been  called  for.  The  knack  of  doing  this 
comes  only  by  slow  and  continued  practice.  The  lead  must 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  39 

be  " humored"  into  shape  and  not  " driven"  into  shape. 
The  end  of  the  pipe  is  tapered  still  more  by  rasping  off 
the  end.  About  %  inch  should  extend  into  the  brass 
ferrule.  With  the  bending  irons,  the  lead  extending  •  into 
the  brass  ferrule  is  beaten  against  the  inside  wall  of  the 
ferrule.  A  good  way  to  do  this  is  to  wedge  the  lead  pipe 
in  as  much  as  possible  at  first,  then  lay  the  work  flat  on  the 
bench,  in  which  position  it  is  more  easily  worked.  The 
sketch  should  be  thoroughly  studied  and  each  notation 
be  perfectly  understood,  before  proceeding  with  the  work. 
Now  that  the  lead  pipe  is  perfectly  fitted  into  place,  it  is 
prepared  for  wiping.  The  joint  overall  will  be  2J^  inches. 
As  we  have  already  allowed  \Y±  inches  on  the  brass  ferrule 
for  the  joint,  the  lead  will  have  to  be  cleaned  that  much 
more.  With  the  shave  hook,  shave  the  end  of  the  pipe  that 
has  been  fitted  into  the  brass  ferrule.  A  space  about  4 
inches  should  be  cleaned.  This  will  give  a  cleaned  surface 
free  from  dirt  and  grease  for  the  paste  and  paper  to  adhere 
to.  Next  paste  the  paper  in  place.  The  lead  pipe  can  be 
entirely  covered,  or  3  or  4  inches  only,  above  the  1J4  inches 
allowed  for  the  joint.  The  space  between  the  paper  on 
the  brass  and  the  paper  on  the  lead  should  nowbe2j^  inches. 
The  paste  and  paper  should  now  be  allowed  to  dry. 

Supporting  the  Pipe. — This  joint  is  wiped  with  the 
ferrule  down  on  the  bench.  A  flat  pan  is  laid  on  the  bench 
and  the  ferrule  stood  upon  it.  A  weight  on  top  of  the  lead 
pipe  is  all  that  is  necessary.  If  this  does  not  make  the 
pipe  rigid  enough  for  the  beginner,  then  a  support  similar 
to  the  round  vertical  joint  support  can  be  used.  The 
beginner  is  advised,  however,  to  practice  the  wiping  of  this 
joint  with  only  the  weight  to  hold  it  in  position.  The 
beginner  will  then  be  required  to  wipe  the  joint  while  the 
solder  is  hot,  when  it  does  not  require  a  heavy  pressure 
against  the  solder  to  wipe  it  in  shape.  These  wiped 
joints  should  be  supported  in  place  near  the  furnace 


40 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


that  heats  the  solder  so  that  the  solder  will  be  handy  for 
wiping. 

Wiping. — Wiping  this  joint  brings  in  some  of  the  methods 
of  the  round  vertical  joint.  If  that  joint  was  thoroughly 
mastered,  this  joint  will  be  wiped  considerably  more  easily. 
The  ladle  is  held  in  the  right  hand 
and  the  solder  splashed  on  the 
joint.  The  catch  cloth  is  held  in 
the  left  hand  and  some  of  the 
solder  is  caught  and  brought  up  on 
the  top  edge.  The  top  edge  cools 
quickly  as  all  the  hot  solder  runs 
down  to  the  bottom  edge  and  into 
the  pan.  As  the  solder  accumu- 
lates on  the  bottom  edge,  it  is 
drawn  up  on  the  top  edge,  and  in 
this  manner  the  top  edge  is  kept 
hot.  When  the  solder  can  be 
worked  freely  around  the  pipe  and 
the  edges  are  hot,  the  joint  is  ready 
to  wipe.  The  ladle  is  laid  down 
and  the  wiping  cloth  is  taken  in 
the  right  hand  and  the  top  edge 
of  the  joint  cleaned  on  one  side. 
Then  the  wiping  cloth  is  changed 
to  the  left  hand  and  the  other  side 
of  the  top  edge  is  cleaned.  Holding 
the  cloth  in  one  hand  with  the  index  and  the  third  fingers 
spread  to  the  outside  corners  of  the  cloth,  the  cloth  is 
passed  around  the  joint  quickly.  To  get  an  even  and  sym- 
metrical joint,  it  is  necessary  to  make  two  or  three  passes 
around  the  joint  holding  the  cloth  first  in  the  right  and 
then  in  the  left  hand.  The  free  hand  is  used  to  steady 
the  work.  This  joint  should  be  wiped  very  slim  to  allow 
room  for  the  caulking  irons  to  pass  by  it  and  get  into  the 


FIG.  25. — Two-inch  brass 
ferrule. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  41 

hub  of  the  pipe.  Constant  wiping  on  the  brass  ferrule  will 
result  in  'the  tinning  on  the  brass  ferrule  coming  off.  The 
ferrule  will  look  black  when  this  happens  and  will  thus  be 
recognized.  The  wiping  should  then  be  stopped  and  the 
ferrule  filed  and  tinned  in  the  same  manner  as  it  was  done 
at  first. 

Points  to  Remember. — 

First,  material — 6  inches  of  2-inch  light  lead  pipe  and  one 
2-inch  brass  ferrule. 

Second,  tin  ferrule,  using  soldering  iron. 

Third,  use  a  soft  pine  stick  for  a  dresser. 

Fourth,  fit  the  lead  into  the  ferrule. 

Fifth,  clean  and  paper  the  lead. 

Sixth,  secure  the  pipe  into  position. 

Seventh,  using  the  catch  cloth  and  ladle,  splash  solder  on 
the  joint. 

Eighth,  keep  the  top  edge  covered  with  solder. 

Ninth,  wipe  the  top  edge  first. 

Tenth,  shape  and  finish  wiping  with  a  few  strokes. 

Eleventh,  tools  used. 

Twelfth,  wipe  a  slim  joint. 

Thirteenth,  steady  the  work  with  the  free  hand. 

Fourteenth,  re-tin  the  ferrule,  if  necessary. 

FOUR-INCH  BRASS  FERRULE 

The  4-inch  brass  ferrule  joint  is  the  same  as  the  2-inch, 
except  for  size.  The  materials  needed  for  this  joint  are  6 
inches  of  4-inch,  8-pound  lead  pipe,  and  one  4-inch  brass 
ferrule,  one  full  pot  of  solder,  some  paste  and  paper,  rosin, 
and  ^2  and  /4  solder. 

Tools  Necessary. — The  tools  required  for  this  joint  are 
as  follows:  saw,  rasp,  file,  ladle,  soldering  iron,  dresser, 
bending  irons,  shave  hook,  and  wiping  cloths. 

Preparation. — Lead  Pipe. — With  the  saw  cut  off  6  inches 


42 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


PASTE    AND 
PAPER 


k- -3f"- -I 


11T 


7 


of  4-inch  lead  pipe.  This  pipe  comes  in  lengths  and  should 
be  for  this  work  about  8  pounds  to  the  foot  in  weight.  The 
pipe  may  be  dented  badly,  but  these  dents  can  be  taken  out 
as  follows :  Take  a  piece  of  2-inch  iron  pipe  and  put  it  in 
a  vise.  The  lead  pipe  can  be  slipped  over  this  iron  pipe 
and  any  dents  taken  out  easily  by  beating  with  the  dresser. 

One  end  of  the  lead  pipe  is 
beaten  with  the  dresser  until  it 
fits  into  the  ferrule.  The  end 
is  then  rasped  a  little.  Then, 
after  the  brass  ferrule  has  been 
tinned,  the  pipe  is  fitted  into  it 
and  beaten  out  against  the  inside 
wall  of  the  brass  ferrule  and  a 
-Rasp to  tight  joint  is  made.  The  lead 
is  next  cleaned  with  the  shave 
hook  and  paper  is  pasted  on  as 
explained  under  the  2-inch  brass 
ferrule,  the  description  of  which 
should  now  be  read  over. 

Brass  Ferrule. — The  first  thing 
to  do  with  the  brass  ferrule  is  to 
file  the  end  that  is  to  be  wiped. 
When  the  brass  ferrule  is  filed, 
it  should  be  done  away  from 
any  part  of  the  room  where  the 
filings  are  likely  to  get  into  the  solder.  After  the  filing 
has  been  done,  paper  is  pasted  on  all  of  it  except  the 
part  that  is  to  be  tinned  and  no  paste  must  get  on 
to  this  part  of  the  ferrule.  If  any  paste  does  get  on 
to  it,  the  filing  will  have  to  be  done  over  again.  When 
using  paste  and  paper,  neatness  must  be  cultivated,  or 
paste  will  be  spread  over  parts  of  the  pipe  that  are  supposed 
not  to  have  any  paste  on  them.  Next,  take  the  soldering 
iron  and  heat  it.  Take  some  rosin  and  put  it  on  the  ex- 


1 

ri 

..SUR.FACE.IO.BE..| 

j 

PASTE   AND 
"  -PAPER'  " 

V 

i 

Fio.   26. — Four-inch    brass 
ferrule. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS 


43 


c . 


posed  part  of  the  ferrule.  With  the  hot  soldering  iron 
proceed  to  tin  the  brass  ferrule,  as  explained  before,  with 
^2  and  %  solder,  using  rosin  as  a  flux.  Now  the  lead  pipe 
that  has  previously  been  prepared  is  fitted  into  the  ferrule. 

Supporting. — Set  the  brass  ferrule  on  a  catch  pan.     The 
lead  pipe  is  upright.     A  weight  placed  on  top  of  the  lead 
pipe  will  steady  the  pipe  for  wiping. 
When  the  joint  is  wiped  the  free  hand 
can  hold  the  pipe  if  the  weight  is  not 
sufficient  to  support  it. 

Wiping. — Splash  the  solder  on  the 
joint  from  the  ladle,  in  the  same 
manner  as  was  employed  in  the  two 
preceding  joints.  To  get  the  proper 
heat  on  the  4-inch  joint  a  little  more 
speed  is  necessary,  also  the  constant 
working  of  the  solder  around  the  pipe. 
The  ladle  is  constantly  moved  around 
the  pipe  so  that  all  parts  of  the  pipe 
will  be  evenly  heated  and  come  into 
contact  with  the  hot  solder  direct 
from  the  ladle.  When  the  solder 
works  freely  around  the  pipe  and  the 
top  edge  is  hot,  the  joint  is  shaped  by 
holding  the  wiping  cloth  in  the  right 
hand,  with  the  index  and  the  middle 
fingers  spread  to  the  opposite  corners 

of  the  cloth.  The  fingers  are  placed  one  on  the  top  edge 
and  one  on  the  bottom  edge.  The  cloth  is  then  passed 
around  the  joint  as  far  as  possible.  Then  the  cloth  is  taken 
in  the  left  hand,  with  the  fingers  spread,  and  passed  around 
the  rest  of  the  joint.  If  the  solder  does  not  take  the  shape 
of  the  cloth  readily,  then  the  solder  is  not  at  the  right 
heat.  This  joint  should  be  wiped  very  slim  to  allow  room 
for  the  caulking  tools.  When  this  joint  is  once  started, 


FIG.  27. — Four-inch 
brass  ferrule. 


44  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

it  should  not  be  left  until  it  has  been  wiped,  otherwise  a 
large  amount  of  solder  will  accumulate  on  the  joint  and 
will  be  hard  to  get  off. 

Points  to  Remember. — 

First,  material. 

Second,  tools. 

Third,  tin  ferrule. 

Fourth,  use  the  dresser  to  fit  the  lead  into  the  ferrule. 

Fifth,  clean  the  lead  with  the  shave  hook,  and  paper. 

Sixth,  use  the  catch  cloth  and  ladle. 

Seventh,  keep  the  top  edge  covered  with  hot  solder. 

Eighth,  wipe  the  top  edge  first. 

Ninth,  make  a  slim  joint. 

Tenth,  steady  the  work  with  the  free  hand. 

STOP  COCK 

Materials  Required. — The  materials  used  for  this  joint 
are  as  follows:  two  pieces  of  %-inch  extra  strong  lead  pipe 
9  inches  long,  each;  one  J^-inch  plug  stop  cock  for  lead 
pipe;  paste  and  paper;  solder;  J£  and  J^  solder;  rosin;  catch 
pan  and  supports. 


Tools  Necessary. — The  tools  necessary  for  this  job  are 
as  follows:  saw,  rasp,  file,  turn  plug,  shave  hook,  bending 
irons,  hammer,  ladle,  soldering  iron,  and  wiping  cloths. 

Preparation. — There  are  two  joints  to  be  wiped  on  this 
job  and  the  stop  cock  is  supported  only  by  the  rigid  fitting 
of  the  lead  pipe.  Therefore  the  preparation  must  be 
thoroughly  done.  The  brass  stop  will  be  prepared  first. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  45 

Brass. — The  two  ends  of  the  stop  cock  are  filed  bright, 
then  papered  and  tinned.  This  operation  is  the  same, 
only  on  a  smaller  scale,  as  the  tinning  of  the  2-inch  and  the 
4-inch  brass  ferrule.  The  paper  is  pasted  over  the  entire 
stop  cock,  except  the  two  ends,  which  are  tinned  for 
about  1J4  inches. 

Lead  Pipe. — After  the  lead  pipe  has  been  cut  off  from  the 
coil,  the  ends  are  squared  with  the  rasp.  One  end  of  each 
piece  is  reamed  out  a  little  with  the  tap  borer  and  spread 
a  trifle  with  the  turn  pin.  With  the  rasp,  take  off  the  out- 
side edge  of  the  end  that  has  been  spread.  The  sketch 
will  show  this  and  give  the  angle  at  which  the  edge  is  to  be 
rasped.  The  stop  cock  is  now  fitted  into  the  lead  pipe. 
The  brass  should  enter  at  least  J^  inch,  then  the  lead  is 
beaten  against  the  brass  until  a  tight  joint  is  made.  The 
other  end  of  the  brass  stop  is  fitted  into  the  other  piece 
of  the  lead  pipe  and  a  perfect  fit  is  made.  The  fitting 
of  these  two  joints  must  be  rigid  as  upon  them  depends  the 
stability  of  the  joint  support.  When  these  ends  of  the 
lead  pipe  have  been  fitted,  the  pipe  is  cleaned  with  the  shave 
hook  and  paper  is  pasted  on,  allowing  lj^  inches  for  the 
joint.  Both  pieces  of  pipe  are  prepared  at  the  same  time 
as  both  ends  are  wiped  at  the  same  time. 

Supporting. — The  three  pieces  of  pipe  should  be  so 
wedged  together  that  they  will  not  fall  apart  when  put  in 
position  for  wiping.  The  bricks  for  supporting  the  pipe 
are  placed  the  same  as  in  the  support  of  the  horizontal 
round  joint.  The  lead  pipe  ends  are  laid  on  the  bricks. 
This  brings  the  stop  cock  in  the  center  without  any  support. 
If  it  were  not  for  the  substantial  fit  between  it  and  the 
lead  pipe,  it  would  not  stay  in  place.  Solder  straps  can 
be  put  over  each  end  of  the  lead  pipe.  Weights  can  be 
used  to  advantage. 

Wiping. — When  getting  the  heat  up  for  these  joints, 
pour  the  solder  over  the  two  joints  and  over  the  stop  cock. 


46  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

This  gets  the  heat  properly  distributed,  so  that  both  joints 
can  be  wiped  while  the  brass  stop  is  heated.  Get  the  proper 
heat  up  on  one  joint  and  then  the  other.  Gome  back  to  the 
first  joint  and  wipe  it  and  then  the  second  one.  Both 
joints  should  be  wiped  so  as  to  have  the  same  shape.  The 
novice  will  experience  some  trouble  when  wiping  this  joint 
in  getting  the  brass  edge  hot.  Heating  up  the  two  joints 
together  will  in  a  large  degree  offset  this  trouble.  Some 


FIG.  29.— Stop  cock. 

mechanics  take  out  the  lever  handle  stop  to  lessen  the 
amount  of  brass  to  heat.  This  is  never  done  by  a  good 
mechanic  as  the  two  pieces  will  never  fit  together  again 
and  make  a  tight  joint.  If  the  plug  is  left  in  place,  both 
the  plug  and  body  will  expand  equally  and  the  pieces  will 
fit  perfectly.  When  wiping  is  started  on  these  joints,  the 
beginner  must  stay  at  it  continually.  When  the  brass  is 
heated,  the  finished  wiping  can  be  tried  over  and  over 
again.  If  this  way  is  not  followed,  the  beginner  will  find 
that  most  of  his  time  will  be  spent  trying  to  get  a  heat  on 
the  brass. 

BRANCH  JOINT 

Materials  Needed. — The  materials  necessary  to  complete 
this  job  are  as  follows:  12  inches  of  j^-inch  extra  strong 
lead  pipe  for  the  run;  6  inches  of  J^-inch  extra  strong  lead 
pipe  for  the  branch ;  paste  and  paper,  and  solder. 

Tools  Necessary. — The  tools  necessary  for  this  job  are 
the  saw,  bending  irons,  rasp,  tap  borer,  ladle,  wiping  cloths, 
and  the  shave  hook. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS 


47 


Preparation. — The  preparation  of  this  joint  requires 
the  skill  of  the  beginner  more  than  any  of  the  preceding 
joints.  The  tapping  of  the  %  pipe  for  the  branch  connec- 
tion, pasting  and  cutting  the  paper,  require  the  utmost 
care  and  precision.  The  ^-inch  pipe  is  tapped  with  the 
tap  borer  in  the  center.  The  tap  borer  is  used  by  grasping 


Saste  aoove  ana 
/  shave  below  +his  line 

\ 

* 
t' 
-^SP 

j 

v 

1     ( 
!""{ 


FIG.  15 


FIG.  30. — Branch  joint. 


the  handle  firmly  and  putting  the  cutting  point  on  the 
mark  and  then  pressing  down  on  the  handle.  This 
forces  the  point  into  the  lead.  Now  turn  the  tool  and 
a  piece  of  lead  will  be  bored  out.  Continue  this  opera- 
tion and  a  hole  will  very  soon  appear  in  the  lead.  A 
hole  just  large  enough  to  allow  the  bending  irons  to  enter 


48  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

is  made.  The  opening  of  the  hole  is  completed  with  the 
bending  iron,  working  the  lead  back  slowly  into  place. 
Do  not  attempt  to  drive  the  lead  back  around  the  hole 
with  a  few  strokes.  One  bending  iron  is  inserted  and  this 
iron  is  struck  with  another  iron  or  hammer.  After  a  num- 
ber of  strokes  the  opening  will  be  of  sufficient  size.  The 
bent  end  of  iron  is  inserted  into  the  hole  and  the  bent  part 
enters  the  bore  of  the  pipe.  This  iron  is  struck  in  such  a 
way  as  to  force  the  lead  around  the  hole  up,  rather  than 
back.  Now  with  the  straight  end  of  irons  open  the  sides. 
When  the  wall  of  pipe  has  been  driven  up  a  little  the  hole 
can  be  enlarged  by  driving  back  the  lead.  This  procedure 
will  form  a  collar  around  the  hole  to  steady  the  branch 
pipe.  Good  workmanship  will  result  in  having  a  good 
substantial  collar  around  the  opening.  The  branch  should 
now  be  fitted.  Clean  the  pipe  with  the  shave  hook  for 
about  2  inches  on  each  side  of  the  opening.  With  com- 
passes set  at  1J^  inches,  mark  off  a  space  on  each  side  of  the 
branch  on  the  run,  or  on  the  %-inch  pipe.  On  the  sides  of 
the  pipe  the  two  lines  should  be  joined  with  an  even  and 
symmetrical  curve.  A  good  way  to  make  this  curve  is 
with  the  shave  hook.  Now  take  a  folded  piece  of  paper 
and  cut  out  the  shape  of  one-half  of  the  joint,  then  open  the 
fold  and  the  entire  ellipse  will  be  made.  When  this  paper 
is  cut,  a  sharp  knife  is  used,  otherwise  a  ragged  edge  will 
be  made  and  a  good  finish  of  joint  is  impossible.  The  paper 
is  now  pasted  and  put  on  the  pipe.  The  surplus  paste  on 
the  edge  of  the  paper  should  be  wiped  off  with  the  fingers 
before  the  paper  is  put  on  the  pipe.  This  prevents  any 
paste  squeezing  out  on  the  joint.  The  branch  is  now  taken 
and  perfectly  fitted  into  the  run.  The  end  is  cleaned  with 
the  shave  hook  and  paper  is  pasted  on  the  pipe,  leaving  1% 
inches  of  cleaned  surface  for  wiping.  The  paste  and  the 
paper  should  now  be  allowed  to  dry.  The  position  for 
wiping  this  joint  is  to  have  the  run  horizontal  and  the  branch 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  49 

on  an  angle  of  45°  pointing  away  from  the  wiper.  Figure 
30  will  bring  out  the  above  explanation  very  vividly. 

Supporting. — The  run  of  this  joint  is  laid  flat  on  the  table 
and  the  branch  inserted  in  its  proper  place.  With  one  hand 
hold  it  in  place,  with  the  other,  use  the  bending  iron,  tap 
the  collar  on  the  run  against  the  branch,  wedging  it  in 
place  good  and  strong  so  that  no  solder  can  leak  through. 
If  the  branch  is  tapered  with  the  rasp  as  shown  the  joint 
can  be  made  very  tight.  The  run  of  the  pipe  is  now  laid 
on  two  bricks  as  was  done  with  the  horizontal  joint.  The 
branch  is  laid  over  on  a  pile  of  bricks  or  wood  at  an  angle  of 
45°.  The  best  way  to  secure  this  joint  is  to  pour  some 
half-molten  solder  on  the  ends  of  pipe  and  brick,  making  a 
solder  clamp.  This  branch  does  not  need  any  clamp  or 
weight  if  it  is  properly  entered  into  the  run.  A  strap  of 
solder  can  be  run  over  the  end  of  pipe  if  found  necessary. 
Place  the  catch  pan  under  the  joint  and  then  the  pipe  will 
be  ready  to  wipe. 

Wiping. — In  wiping  this  joint,  the  catch  cloth  is  used  not 
only  to  catch  the  solder  as  it  drops  off  from  the  pipe,  but 
also  to  hold  the  hot  solder  against  the  pipe  to  heat  the 
under  side  of  the  joint.  Test  the  solder  and  see  if  it  is  the 
correct  heat  for  wiping.  If  so,  prepare  for  wiping.  After 
heating  the  ladle,  take  some  solder  in  it  and  proceed  to  drop 
the  molten  solder  on  the  joint.  The  ladle  is  moved  con- 
stantly as  the  solder  is  dropped  on  the  run  and  then  on 
the  branch  to  get  the  entire  joint  to  the  proper  heat.  As 
the  solder  drops  off  from  the  joint,  it  is  caught  on  the  catch 
cloth  and  brought  up  on  the  top  of  the  joint  where  it  is 
re-melted  by  dropping  hot  solder  on  it.  Then  the  hot  solder 
is  held  in  the  cloth  against  the  under  side  of  the  joint  to 
get  the  under  side  properly  heated.  The  solder  is  worked 
around  all  parts  of  the  joint.  When  the  heat  is  got  up 
sufficiently  and  the  solder  works  freely  around  the  joint, 
the  branch  cloth  is  taken  and  each  edge  of  the  joint  is  wiped 


50  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

clean.  Any  surplus  solder  is  brought  up  on  top  of  the  joint 
and  then  wiped  on  the  catch  cloth.  This  solder  is  then  put 
on  the  under  side  of  the  joint.  With  the  branch  cloth 
reach  way  around  the  joint  and  wipe  each  side,  bringing 
the  cloth  each  time  to  the  top  and  then  oft7  the  joint.  The 
last  wipe  is  directly  across  the  top,  wiping  off  any  surplus 
solder  that  may  have  accumulated  from  wiping  the  sides. 
The  difficulty  with  this  joint  is  in  getting  the  top  and  bottom 
to  have  an  equal  amount  of  solder.  With  a  little  practice 
and  by  watching  each  motion  your  faults  can  be  noted  and 
remedied.  If  the  paper  starts  to  come  off,  it  should  be 
re-papered  at  once.  When  the  joint  is  finished,  it  should 
be  left  in  position  until  the  solder  has  had  time  to  set  and 
cool,  otherwise  the  branch  will  break  off  and  considerable 
time  will  be  lost  in  correcting  the  trouble. 

Points  to  Remember. — 

First,  the  use  of  the  tap  borer. 

Second,  the  use  of  the  bending  irons. 

Third,  do  not  allow  the  bending  irons  to  touch  the  inside 
walls  of  the  pipe  when  stretching  the  opening. 

Fourth,  secure  the  branch  into  the  run. 

Fifth,  secure  the  pipes  into  position  for  wiping. 

Sixth,  spread  the  heat  on  the  edges  and  the  bottom  of  the 
joint. 

Seventh,  wipe  with  the  branch  cloth. 

Eighth,  cut  the  paper. 

Ninth,  mark  the  outline  of  the  joint. 

BRANCH  JOINT  PLACED  FLAT 

When  the  wiper  has  mastered  the  branch  joint  placed  at 
an  angle  of  45°,  he  can  proceed  to  wipe  the  joint  placed  in 
the  next  position,  which  is  flat. 

Preparation. — The  preparation  of  this  joint  is  identical 
with  the  preceding  one  placed  at  an  angle  of  45°.  If  a  new 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  51 

joint  is  to  be  prepared,  it  would  be  well  to  pay  strict  atten- 
tion to  the  details,  such  as  keeping  the  paste  on  the  paper 
only  and  having  the  edge  of  the  paper  cut  perfectly  smooth 
and  even.  Before  putting  on  the  paper  see  that  the  pipe  is 
free  from  all  grease  and  dirt.  The  paste  and  paper  will 
stick  better  if  all  the  dirt  is  removed.  The  branch  should 
be  well  fitted  into  the  run  of  the  pipe  so  that  no  solder  will 
get  into  the  bore  of  the  pipe.  The  branch  should  not  extend 
into  the  run  of  pipe  enough  to  obstruct  the  bore  of  it.  If 
the  instructions  for  preparing  the  pipe  are  not  carried  out 
as  detailed,  the  wiper  will  experience  some  trouble  that  he 
may  find  hard  to  overcome. 

Supporting. — The  run  can  be  supported  on  bricks.  The 
branch  can  be  supported  on  a  brick  placed  at  its  end  the 
same  height  as  the  run.  This  will  bring  the  joint  in  the 
correct  flat  position.  The  branch  should  point  away  from 
the  wiper.  Solder  straps  can  now  be  poured  over  the  ends 
of  each  pipe.  If  weights  are  used  to  hold  the  pipe  firm  in- 
stead of  solder  straps,  they  should  be  so  placed  that  they 
will  not  interfere  with  the  hands  when  wiping. 

Wiping. — The  wiping  of  this  joint  is  more  difficult  as  the 
beginner  will  experience  trouble  in  heating  the  bottom  and 
keeping  the  solder  on  the  bottom.  Solder  is  dropped  on 
the  joint  and  along  the  pipe  so  as  to  bring  the  pipe  to  the 
proper  wiping  heat.  Some  solder  will  accumulate  on  top  of 
the  joint.  This  is  melted  off  on  the  catch  cloth  and  this 
hot  solder  held  against  the  bottom  of  the  joint.  This  opera- 
tion is  repeated  until  the  bottom  as  well  as  the  top  of  the 
joint  is  heated  properly.  When  the  solder  can  be  worked 
freely  around  the  pipe,  the  branch  cloth  is  taken  and  each 
side  is  wiped  from  the  bottom  toward  the  top.  Solder  is 
accumulated  on  the  top  where  it  is  wiped  off  on  the  catch 
cloth  and  put  on  the  bottom  of  the  joint.  Now  reach  way 
around  each  side  and  wipe  the  edge  and  body  of  the  joint, 
a  wipe  across  the  top  completing  the  joint.  The  bottom 


52  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

can  be  wiped  with  a  cross  wipe  also  if  desired.  The  top  and 
the  bottom  should  be  identical.  Notice  carefully  the  draw- 
ing of  this  joint  and  endeavor  to  have  the  same  lines.  The 
perfecting  of  these  joints  comes  only  with  patient  practice. 
The  beginner  must  not  get  discouraged  because  of  a  burn  or 
two.  As  soon  as  confidence  in  oneself  has  been  gained,  the 
possibility  of  burning  the  fingers  is  entirely  eliminated. 

BRANCH  VERTICAL 

The  materials,  tools,  and  preparation  for  this  joint  placed 
in  a  vertical  position  are  just  the  same,  practically,  as  those 
in  the  preceding  branch  joints.  One  or  two  points  wherein 
they  differ  are  mentioned  below.  To  rigidly  support  the 
joint  for  wiping,  allow  the  run  of  the  pipe  to  rest  on  some 
bricks  as  before  mentioned,  with  the  branch  looking  up. 
Now  take  a  piece  of  wood  and  drive  a  nail  through  one  end 
of  it  about  1  inch  from  the  edge.  Let  this  nail  enter  the 
bore  of  the  vertical  branch.  The  wood  is  allowed  to  rest  on 
the  back  of  the  bench  or  is  braced  against  the  wall.  Sup- 
porting the  pipes  in  this  way  will  allow  the  wiper  perfect 
freedom.  When  wiping  this  joint,  splash  the  solder  on 
from  the  ladle  as  on  the  upright  joint.  As  all  the  sides  of 
this  joint  can  be  seen,  it  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  make  a 
perfectly  symmetrical  solder  bulb.  When  the  proper  heat 
is  gained,  the  top  edge  of  the  joint  is  wiped  first,  then  the 
lower  curved  edge,  using  the  branch  cloth.  The  body  of 
the  joint  is  then  wiped  and  the  joint  finished  with  a  cross 
wipe,  if  necessary. 

BRANCH  HORIZONTAL 

The  next  position  for  this  joint  is  to  have  the  branch  pipe 
horizontal  and  the  run  vertical.  The  materials,  tools  and 
preparation  for  this  joint  are  the  same  as  for  the  preceding 
ones.  The  supporting  and  wiping  differ  a  Jittle. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  53 

Supporting. — One  end  of  the  run  is  placed  on  the  catch 
pan.  The  other  end  is  held  in  place  the  same  way  as  the 
branch  was  held  in  the  preceding  joint.  If  the  pictures  of 
this  joint  are  carefully  looked  over,  the  methods  employed 
to  hold  the  pipe  will  be  readily  noted.  The  branch  is  best 
held  by  inserting  one  end  of  a  bending  iron  in  the  bore  of 
the  pipe  and  placing  the  other  end  of  the  iron  on  a  brick 
built  up  to  the  right  height.  The  iron  should  be  weighted 
to  keep  the  joint  from  swaying. 

Wiping. — The  solder  is  now  dropped  on  the  branch  as 
in  the  round  joint,  and  splashed  on  the  vertical  run  as  in 
the  upright  joint.  Sufficient  solder  is  put  on  the  joint  to 
keep  the  edges  covered  with  hot  solder.  Solder  is  worked 
around  the  joint  until  all  parts  of  it  are  thoroughly  heated 
and  the  solder  works  easily,  then  all  the  edges  are  wiped 
clean.  The  top  half  is  then  wiped  evenly  and  the  bottom 
half  wiped  to  match  the  top  half.  A  cross  wipe  in  front 
completes  the  joint.  When  this  cross  wipe  is  made  on  any 
joint,  a  thick  edge  of  solder  must  not  be  left.  The  edge 
must  be  wiped  clean.  This  joint  should  be  wiped  first 
with  the  branch  pointing  to  the  right  and  then  with  the 
branch  pointing  to  the  left.  It  will  take  the  beginner  some 
time  to  master  these  branch  joints,  for  not  only  must  they 
be  wiped  symmetrically  for  the  sake  of  appearances,  but 
they  must  be  wiped  while  the  solder  is  hot  to  secure  a  tight 
joint.  A  joint  that  is  wiped  with  solder  that  is  too  cold 
will  be  porous  and  will  leak  when  put  under  pressure.  With 
care  the  same  pipe  can  be  used  throughout  for  all  the 
positions  of  this  branch  joint. 

ONE  AND  ONE-HALF-INCH  BRANCH  JOINT 

Upon  the  completion  of  the  small  sized  branch  joint  in 
its  various  angles,  the  1^-inch  branch  joint  is  to  be  wiped. 
This  branch  joint  is  wiped  in  the  same  positions  as  the  % 


54  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

branch  was  wiped.  The  pipe  being  larger,  there  is  more 
solder  for  the  wiper  to  handle,  and  the  edges  to  keep  clean 
and  to  wipe  are  longer. 

Materials  Needed. — The  materials  needed  for  this  job 
are  12  inches  of  IJ^-inch  light  lead  pipe  for  the  run,  and  6 
inches  of  IJ^-inch  pipe  for  the  branch,  paste,  paper,  solder, 
and  catch  pan. 

Tools  Needed. — The  tools  necessary  for  this  job  are  the 
saw,  rasp,  shave  hook,  bending  irons,  drift  plug,  hammer, 
ladle,  wiping  cloths,  and  tap  borer. 

Preparation. — To  an  experienced  wiper,  the  procedure 
of  preparing  this  joint  and  wiping  it  are  so  near  like  the 
^-branch  joint  that  a  detailed  description  would  be  un- 
necessary; but  for  the  benefit  of  the  beginner,  I  will  repeat 
the  details  as  they  apply  to  this  particular  joint  and  thereby 
avoid  any  error.  We  will  take  the  preparation  of  the  run 
first.  Square  the  two  ends  of  the  pipe  with  the  rasp.  Mark 
off  the  center  of  the  pipe.  With  the  round  part  of  the  rasp, 
held  at  right  angles  with  the  pipe,  proceed  to  rasp  down  the 
crown  of  pipe  where  the  center  mark  was  made.  Do  not 
rasp  through  the  wall  of  the  pipe,  but  just  enough  so  that 
the  tap  borer  will  enter  the  pipe  with  only  a  slight  pressure. 
With  the  tap  borer,  tap  a  hole  large  enough  for  the  bending 
irons  to  enter.  Now  proceed  to  enlarge  the  hole,  first 
forcing  the  edges  up  and  then  forcing  them  back,  making 
the  hole  larger  and  making  a  collar  around  the  hole  at  the 
same  time.  Continue  to  open  the  pipe  until  the  aperture 
is  large  enough  for  the  branch  pipe  to  enter.  The  bending 
irons  must  not  come  into  contact  with  the  inside  wall  of 
the  pipe,  for  if  they  do  the  inside  bore  will  be  marred  and 
be  very  ragged.  As  these  joints  are  usually  used  on  waste 
lines,  these  ragged  places  make  an  ideal  place  for  lint  and 
grease  to  collect  and  cause  a  stoppage.  To  make  the  inside 
of  the  hole  even,  a  piece  of  J^-inch  pipe  can  be  used  in  place 
of  the  bending  irons.  To  cut  out  the  oval  from  a  piece  of 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  55 

paper  to  fit  the  joint,  fold  the  paper  and  cut  out  one-half 
of  the  oval.  Now  unfold  the  paper  and  the  complete  oval 
is  obtained.  The  measurements  of  the  oval  are  taken  from 
Fig.  30,  1J-6  inches  each  side  of  the  branch  lengthwise  of 
the  run.  These  two  lines  are  connected  with  a  curved  line 
as  shown.  This  curved  line  can  be  made  with  the  shave 
hook.  Take  the  large  edge  of  the  shave  hook  and  roll  it 
along  between  the  lines  to  be  joined.  A  little  practice 
will  perfect  one  in  doing  this  quickly.  The  beginner  should 
make  a  number  of  these  ovals  so  that  he  can  get  them  per- 
fect. The  graceful  appearance  of  this  joint  depends  upon 
the  neatness  with  which  it  is  prepared.  I  do  not  want  the 
beginner  to  think  that  a  graceful  shape  of  the  joint  is  all 
that  is  to  be  desired  or  that  it  is  the  most  essential  point. 
Further  along,  perhaps,  more  vital  requirements  will  be 
brought  out  and  the  beginner  will  be  made  acquainted  with 
them. 

The  ends  of  the  6-inch  piece  are  now  Squared  with  the 
rasp.  The  edges  of  one  end  are  rasped  off  as  shown  in  the 
sketch,  making  a  wedged  fit  into  the  run.  This  end  is  then 
cleaned  with  the  shave  hook.  Paper  is  then  pasted  on  to 
cover  the  pipe  except  the  l^fj  inches  cleaned  on  the  end. 
This  cleaned  part  forms  part  of  the  joint,  therefore  no  paste 
or  paper  must  be  put  on  it.  The  pipe  is  now  fitted  into  the 
run  and  the  collar  beaten  against  it  with  the  bending  irons. 
The  run  is  now  cleaned  with  the  shave  hook  for  about  3 
inches  each  side  of  the  center.  The  paper  oval  cut  out  is 
now  pasted  on  the  joint.  The  paste  and  paper  are  then 
allowed  to  dry  before  they  are  handled  further. 

Supporting. — The  supporting  of  this  joint,  which  is 
placed  with  the  branch  on  an  angle  of  45°  pointing  away 
from  the  wiper,  is  not  a  difficult  matter.  The  beginner  can 
use  his  own  ingenuity  for  supporting  the  pipe  if  condi- 
tions do  not  warrant  the  using  of  the  methods  previously 
described. 


56  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Wiping. — The  solder  should  now  be  tested  for  heat.  If 
the  solder  is  at  the  proper  heat,  the  ladle  is  taken  and 
heated.  Take  a  ladle  full  of  solder  and  drop  the  solder  on 
the  joint.  The  lead  of  which  this  branch  joint  is  made  is 
considerably  lighter  than  any  lead  that  has  been  used  be- 
fore. Therefore,  the  beginner  must  drop  the  solder  on 
carefully,  making  sure  that  the  solder  is  not  dropped  on  the 
same  spot,  for  a  hole  can  be  burned  through  the  pipe  very 
quickly.  The  ladle  must  be  kept  moving,  then  the  solder 
will  not  burn  through  the  pipe.  The  heat  is  got  up  on  the 
pipe  by  dropping  the  solder  on  the  run  and  on  the  branch, 
catching  the  surplus  solder  on  the  catch  cloth  and  heating 
the  under  side  of  the  joint  with  it.  To  form  the  joint,  dis- 
tribute the  solder  and  then  wipe  it  into  shape.  Notice  that 
I  said  wipe  it  into  shape.  A  beginner  is  very  apt  to  try  to 
push  or  poke  it  into  shape.  This  must  not  be  done  as  it  has 
a  tendency  to  make  the  joint  lumpy.  All  the  edges  are 
wiped  off  clean  first,  then  the  body  of  the  joint  is  shaped  and 
wiped.  When  forming  the  joint,  be  sure  that  the  bottom 
and  the  top  are  symmetrical.  Do  not  have  one-half  larger 
than  the  other.  The  last  wiping  strokes  are  made  swiftly 
and  rapidly.  If  the  wiper  will  watch  his  movements  and 
note  the  results  and  then  try  to  improve  them,  keeping  in 
mind  that  a  symmetrical  joint  is  wanted  with  thin  edges, 
perfection  in  wiping  will  come  much  more  quickly  than  if 
no  attention  is  paid  to  the  strokes  made  when  wiping. 

BRANCH  JOINT  WIPED  FLAT 

The  materials  required  for  this  joint  do  not  differ  from 
the  preceding  one.  If  the  pipe  used  for  the  branch  joint 
at  a  45°  angle  is  in  good  shape,  it  can  be  used  for  this  joint 
by  simply  changing  positions.  The  tools  needed  will  not 
be  any  different.  The  ladle  and  the  wiping  cloths,  of 
course  will  be  required.  A  pair  of  pliers  can  be  used  to 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  57 

advantage  in  picking  up  the  hot  solder.  The  wiping  cloths 
should  receive  a  little  more  oil  to  keep  them  soft  and  pli- 
able. Oil  the  edges  of  the  cloths  well. 

Supporting. — To  support  this  pipe  for  wiping  have  each 
end  rest  on  a  brick.  Each  end  can  be  weighted  to  hold  it  in 
place. 

Wiping. — To  wipe  this  joint,  proceed  to  drop  the  solder 
on  the  joint.  When  the  pipe  is  thoroughly  heated  and  the 
solder  works  freely  around  the  pipe  the  joint  can  be  wiped. 
The  procedure  is  like  the  preceding  one.  The  wiper  is 
cautioned  to  move  the  ladle  constantly  while  dropping  the 
solder. 

BRANCH  HELD  VERTICAL 

After  a  number  of  the  previous  joints  have  been  wiped 
successfully,  the  pipe  is  placed  in  such  a  position  that  the 
branch  will  be  vertical.  The  supporting  of  the  pipe  to 
hold  the  joint  in  this  position  for  wiping  is  very  easily  done 
after  handling  the  %-in.  joint  in  this  position.  The  follow- 
ing points  may  be  found  helpful:  The  solder  is  splashed  on 
the  joint  from  the  ladle.  The  top  edge  of  the  joint  is  kept 
hot  by  keeping  the  solder  covering  it.  When  the  proper 
heat  has  been  got  up,  the  top  edge  is  wiped  first,  then  the 
bottom  edges  both  front  and  back.  The  body  of  the  joint 
is  wiped  last  and  a  cross  wipe  finishes  the  joint.  I  have 
found  that  the  beginner  in  many  cases,  when  this  joint  is 
reached,  tries  to  wipe  it  with  many  short  strokes.  The 
habit  is  a  bad  one  and  should  be  stopped  as  soon  as  noticed. 
Learn  to  wipe  the  top  edge  with  only  two  strokes,  the  bottom 
edge  with  not  more  than  four,  the  body  of  the  joint  with 
four,  and  one  cross  wipe  to  finish.  This  joint  should  be 
finished  as  symmetrically  as  possible  and  wiped  while  the 
solder  is  hot. 


58  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

RUN  HELD  VERTICALLY 

When  the  vertical  branch  has  been  conquered  and  the 
wiper  can  get  a  good  joint  every  time  it  is  tried,  the  pipe 
can  be  changed  to  a  different  position.  The  run  is  placed 
in  a  vertical  position  and  the  branch  horizontally  to  the 
left.  The  catch  pan  is  put  under  the  end  of  the  pipe. 
Follow  the  same  directions  for  supporting  this  joint  as  were 
given  under  the  %-in.  branch  placed  in  a  similar  position. 
The  wiping  of  this  joint  is  so  nearly  like  the  preceding 
branch  joints  that  I  will  not  give  any  instructions  at  all. 
This  joint  is  finished  at  the  same  point  that  the  other  branch 
joints  are  finished.  However,  there  are  one  or  two  matters 
that  should  be  kept  in  mind.  Some  of  the  small  matters 
are  often  overlooked  and  should  be  called  to  mind  occa- 
sionally. Do  not  allow  the  solder  to  accumulate  in  the  pan. 
If  the  cloths  are  burned,  they  should  be  turned,  or  new  ones 
made.  If  the  paper  has  started  to  come  off  from  the  pipe, 
new  paper  should  be  put  on  at  once.  Test  the  solder  occa- 
sionally and  see  that  it  does  not  get  too  hot.  Upon  com- 
pletion of  the  joint  in  this  position,  the  branch  joint  in  its 
various  positions  is  finished.  The  beginner  has  found  out 
while  wiping  these  various  joints  a  number  of  points  that 
were  not  mentioned  in  my  description.  No  amount  of 
detailed  description  will  make  a  good  joint  wiper.  Patience 
and  practice  are  as  important  in  joint  wiping  as  good  prepara- 
tion and  good  solder. 

Points  to  Remember. — 

First,  materials — 18  inches  of  lj^-in.  lead  pipe. 

Second,  use  of  tools. 

Third,  keep  bending  irons  away  from  the  wall  of  the  pipe. 

Fourth,  make  a  good  collar  around  the  opening. 

Fifth,  make  a  tight  fit  with  branch  and  run. 

Sixth,  hot  solder  will  quickly  burn  through  the  lead. 

Seventh,  use  branch  cloth  for  wiping. 

Eighth,  cut  out  paper  for  joint  even  and  symmetrical. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS 


59 


FIG.  31. 


BIB 

This  joint  is  another  brass  to  lead,  and  is  the  last  single 
joint  to  be  wiped  in  this  course  of  joint  wiping. 

Materials  Needed. — The  materials  required  for  this 
joint  are  as  follows:  10  inches  of  %-inch  extra  strong  lead 
pipe;  one  J^-inch  brass  sink  bib  for  lead  pipe;  one  pot  of 
solder,  paste  and  paper,  J^ 
and  %  solder,  catch  pan,  and 
supports. 

Tools  Required. — The  tools 
required  for  this  job  are  the 
saw,  rasp,  tap  borer,  bending 
irons,  file,  ladle,  wiping  cloths, 
shave  hook,  knife  and  rule, 
soldering  iron. 

Preparation. — To  prepare 
the  lead  pipe  after  cutting 
from  the  coil  and  squaring 
the  ends  with  the  rasp  is  very  similar  to  the  %-inch  branch 
joint.  The  center  of  the  pipe  is  marked  and  a  hole  is  made 
in  it  with  the  tap  borer  large  enough  to  admit  the  bending 
irons.  The  hole  is  enlarged  with  the  irons.  A  good  sub- 
stantial collar  is  made  around  the  hole  to  hold  the  bib  in 
place.  One  and  one-eighth  inches  are  marked  off  on  each 
side  of  the  branch  and  an  easy  curve  connects  the  two. 
The  paper  is  then  cut  out  and  pasted  on  the  pipe  after  it 
has  been  scraped  with  the  shave  hook. 

The  end  of  the  brass  bib  is  filed  bright  and  tinned  with 
the  soldering  iron  and  J^  and  J^  solder.  Before  the  tinning 
is  done,  paper  is  put  on  the  brass,  leaving  only  1J^  inches 
exposed.  The  tinning  must  be  thoroughly  done,  or  it  will 
come  off  and  have  to  be  re-tinned. 

Supporting. — The  bib  is  fitted  into  the  lead  opening  and 
the  collar  is  forced  against  the  bib  to  hold  it  in  place  and 
prevent  any  solder  from  leaking  through  into  the  bore  of  the 


60 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


FIG.  32.— Bib. 


pipe.  The  bib  must  not  extend  too  far  into  the  lead  pipe 
or  it  will  obstruct  the  flow  of  water.  The  lead  pipe  is 
laid  on  two  bricks  the  same  as  the  round  joint.  The  bib 
is  laid  on  an  angle  of  45°  pointing  away  from  the  wiper. 
Some  bricks  can  be  piled  up  to  the  right  height  to  hold  the 
bib  in  place  and  a  solder  strap  can  be  made  to  hold  it 

steady.  The  lead  pipe  can  be 
held  steady  by  weighting  each 
end.  The  catch  pan  is  now 
placed  under  the  joint  and  every- 
thing is  ready  for  wiping. 

Wiping. — When  the  solder  is 
hot,  getting  the  heat  on  the  pipe 
is  started.  Solder  should  be 
dropped  oftener  on  the  brass  bib 
than  on  the  lead  pipe.  It  takes 
more  heat  to  heat  the  brass 
thoroughly  than  it  does  the 

lead.  If  this  is  followed  out,  little  difficulty  will  be  had  in 
getting  up  the  heat  and  in  wiping.  Use  the  branch  cloth 
for  wiping  and  make  sure  that  all  edges  are  perfectly 
cleaned  before  making  the  final  strokes.  As  this  is  the 
only  position  that  the  joint  will  be  wiped  in,  practice  should 
be  continued  until  perfect  joints  can  be  obtained. 

Points  to  Remember. — 

First,  materials  needed. 

Second,  tools  needed. 

Third,  use  tap  borer. 

Fourth,  enlarge  hole  with  bending  irons. 

Fifth,  make  substantial  collar  around  the  opening. 

Sixth,  paper  the  lead. 

Seventh,  file  the  bib,  then  paper. 

Eighth,  tin  the  bib. 

Ninth,  place  in  position  and  wipe. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS 


DRUM  TRAP 


61 


The  making  of  the  drum  trap  will  bring  out  the  skill  of 
the  beginner.  The  entire  trap  is  made  of  lead  pipe.  The 
lead  will  require  a  great  deal  of  handling.  Therefore, 
care  must  be  exercised  in  all  operations  to  turn  the  trap  out 
in  a  workmanlike  manner. 

Materials  Needed.  —  The  materials  needed  to  complete 
this  job  are:  10  inches  of  4-inch  8-pound  lead  pipe;  18  inches 
of  1  J^-inch  light  lead  pipe;  paste  and  paper,  support,  solder, 
and  catch  pan. 

Tools  Needed.  —  The  tools  required  for  this  job  are: 
saw,  rasp,  bending  irons,  shave  hook,  bending  spring,  tap 
borer,  dresser,  ladle,  drift  plug,  and  wiping  cloths. 


Solder 


FIG.  33. — Drum  trap. 

Preparing. — Take  the  10-inch  piece  of  lead  pipe  and  hold 
it  in  one  hand,  in  the  other  hand  take  a  pine  dresser. 
Strike  the  lead  pipe  with  the  dresser.  The  pipe  is  struck 
about  2  inches  from  the  end  and  is  beaten  evenly  all  around. 
The  pipe  is  then  struck  nearer  the  end  until  finally  the  bore 
of  the  pipe  is  almost  closed.  This  closed  end  should  be 
rounding  and  symmetrical.  To  get  this  shape  the  pipe 
must  be  continually  moved  and  turned.  One  side  must  not 
be  forced  in  more  than  the  other.  If  there  are  any  dents 


62  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

in  the  pipe  or  part  of  the  pipe  is  forced  in  too  much  it  may 
be  driven  out  as  follows:  Take  an  old  piece  of  J^-inch  lead 
pipe  and  round  one  end  of  it  with  a  hammer;  this  can  be 
used  by  hitting  the  inside  of  the  closed  end  of  the  drum  and 
forcing  out  the  dents.  The  rounded  end  of  the  trap  is  not 
quite  closed  and  a  hole  about  %  inch  is  left.  This  opening 
is  closed  by  shaping  the  edges  of  it  with  the  knife,  making 
them  smooth  and  beveled.  Then  a  piece  of  lead  is  cut  out 
of  some  scrap,  the  same  shape  as  the  hole  and  fitted  into 
it.  The  top  surface  of  this  fitted  piece  should  be  a  little 
lower  than  the  surface  of  the  pipe.  Strike  a  circle,  using 
the  compasses,  the  center  of  the  circle  being  the  center  of 
the  inserted  piece  of  lead.  The  lead  inside  of  this  circle  is 
shaved  clean  with  the  shave  hook,  including  the  inserted 
piece.  Paper  is  then  pasted  outside  of  the  circle  and  should 
cover  entirely  the  rest  of  the  pipe.  The  inserted  piece  is 
wiped  on  the  pipe  as  follows: 

Wiping  End. — Stand  the  4-in.  pipe  in  a  pan  with  the 
rounded  end  of  the  pipe  up.  Be  sure  that  the  inserted 
piece  is  fitted  securely.  The  solder  is  now  dropped  on  the 
paper  and  shaved  portion  of  the  pipe.  Exercise  consider- 
able care  not  to  burn  a  hole  in  the  pipe.  As  the  hot  solder 
runs  off,  catch  some  of  it  and  draw  it  back  on  the  joint. 
When  the  solder  can  be  manipulated  freely  and  the  pipe  is 
hot,  the  joint  can  be  wiped.  The  cloth  is  drawn  across  the 
joint,  cleaning  all  the  edges  with  one  stroke.  The  joint 
should  be  shaped  to  complete  the  rounding  surface  of  the 
pipe.  The  joint  is  comparatively  easy  and  will  not  occupy 
much  time.  As  soon  as  it  is  wiped,  cover  the  solder  with 
paper.  This  will  preserve  the  freshness  of  the  joint  until 
all  wiping  is  completed. 

PREPARING  INLET  PIPE 

After  the  above  joint  is  completed,  the  lj^-in.  branch 
inlet  pipe  is  prepared  and  wiped  in  place.  The  center  of 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  63 

this  branch  is  marked  on  the  4-inch  pipe  and  a  hole  is  tap- 
ped in  the  pipe,  using  the  tap  borer.  A  hole  large  enough 
to  admit  the  bending  irons  is  made.  The  hole  is  enlarged 
with  the  bending  irons,  bending  the  lead  first  up,  then  back. 
A  piece  of  J^-inch  iron  pipe  can  be  used  as  a  tool  to  finish 
the  opening.  The  iron  pipe  is  larger  in  diameter  than  the 
bending  irons  and  leaves  a  more  finished  surface.  The 
opening  is  made  of  sufficient  size  to  admit  the  rasped  end 
of  the  1%-inch  pipe.  When  using  the  irons  to  enlarge  the 
opening  in  the  pipe,  be  sure  not  to  bruise  any  part  of  the 
trap.  The  IJ^-mch  pipe  is  now  taken.  The  ends  of  this 
pipe  are  squared  with  the  rasp.  The  drift  plug  is  then 
driven  through  the  pipe  to  take  out  any  bruises  or  flattened 
places.  The  edge  of  one  end  is  rasped  off  to  fit  the  opening 
made  in  the  4-inch  pipe.  The  beginner  must  strive  to  make 
a  perfect  fit.  The  accuracy  with  which  these  preparations 
are  made  is  what  helps  in  a  large  degree  to  bring  about  a 
successful  job.  The  next  operation  is  to  paper  the  parts 
not  to  be  wiped.  The  sizes  of  the  joint  should  be  followed 
as  shown  on  the  sketch.  The  pipe  is  first  shaved  with  the 
shave  hook,  after  which  the  paper  is  pasted  on.  No  paste 
is  allowed  to  get  on  the  joint  proper.  The  beginner  should 
by  this  time  have  formed  the  habit  of  being  neat  with  his 
work.  Therefore  the  getting  of  paste  on  the  joint  surface 
shows  that  he  is  not  as  neat  or  as  far  advanced  as  he 
should  be. 

Supporting. — The  drum  is  laid  lengthwise  on  the  bench 
and  blocks  are  put  on  each  side  to  keep  it  from  rolling,  the 
branch  uppermost.  The  IJ^-inch  pipe  is  held  in  position 
the  same  way  as  the  vertical  branch  was  held.  The  catch 
pan  is  put  under  the  drum  to  catch  the  surplus  solder. 

Wiping. — Splash  the  solder  on  the  branch  pipe,  also  on 
the  drum.  The  burning  through  of  the  drum  is  an  easy 
matter.  Therefore  do  not  keep  dropping  the  solder  on  one 
place,  but  keep  the  ladle  moving  continually.  With  the 


64  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

catch  cloth  draw  the  solder  up  on  the  branch  covering  the 
top  edge  of  the  prepared  surface.  Splashing  the  solder  on 
this  top  edge  melts  the  solder  already  on  and  allows  it  to 
run  down  on  the  4-inch  pipe  where  it  is  caught  with  the 
cloth  and  again  brought  up  on  the  top  edge  of  the  branch. 
When  the  solder  works  freely  all  around  the  joint,  the  top 
edge  is  wiped  clean  and  even.  Then  any  surplus  solder  is 
wiped  off.  The  bottom  edge  is  next  wiped  clean,  after 
which  the  body  of  the  joint  is  wiped  into  shape,  together 
with  both  edges.  The  edges  are  wiped  very  thin  so  that 
when  the  paper  is  removed  the  outline  of  the  joint  stands  out 
very  distinctly.  A  thick  edge  on  a  joint  gives  an  unwork- 
manlike appearance  to  the  work.  The  joint  is  finished  with 
a  cross  wipe. 

The  other  joints  are  prepared  and  wiped  the  same  as  the 
one  just  completed.  The  IJ^-inch  branch  connection 
taken  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  trap  is  bent.  As  this  is  the 
first  time  it  has  been  necessary  to  bend  lead  pipe  in  these 
jobs,  I  will  cover  this  operation  in  detail.  The  pipe  is 
first  straightened  and  the  drift  plug  driven  through  it.  The 
pipe  is  marked  where  the  bend  is  to  be  made.  The  bending 
spring,  size  lj^  inches,  is  put  into  the  pipe,  the  center  of 
the  spring  coming  about  where  the  bend  is  to  be  made. 
The  pipe  is  then  heated  where  it  was  marked  to  be  bent. 
The  proper  heat  for  this  pipe  is  just  so  that  the  hand  cannot 
stand  being  laid  against  it.  The  pipe  is  held  in  the  hands 
and  on  the  end  nearest  the  heat  is  hit  against  the  floor  at  an 
angle.  The  pipe,  with  the  first  blow,  will  start  to  bend. 
With  a  few  more  strokes  the  desired  bend  will  be  obtained. 
The  bending  spring  can  now  be  pulled  out.  Put  a  little 
water  in  the  pipe,  then  put  one  end  of  the  spring  in  the 
vise,  twist  the  pipe,  and  the  spring  will  come  out  when 
the  pipe  is  pulled  away  from  it.  The  bending  spring 
holds  the  pipe  cylindrical  while  it  is  being  bent.  Without 
the  spring,  the  pipe  would  be  badly  crushed  at  the  bend 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS 


65 


and  rendered  almost  unfit  for  service.  Another  good  way 
to  bend  pipe  is  to  plug  one  end  and  fill  the  pipe  full  of  sand, 
then  plug  the  open  end.  The  pipe  is  then  heated  where  the 
bend  is  to  be  made.  The  pipe  can  then  be  bent  over  the 
knee.  When  all  the  joints  are  wiped,  the  paper  should  be 
taken  off  and  the  lead  cleaned  with  sand  and  water.  The 
trap  is  now  complete  except  the  brass  clean-out  to  be  sol- 
dered on  the  top.  The  inside  of  the  trap  should  not  have 
any  rough  edges  or  drops  of  solder  in  it. 


Joini- 


Joint 
FIG.  34.  —  Drum  trap. 


There  are  two  other  drum  traps  to  be  made.  The 
materials  needed  are  the  same  as  for  the  above  trap  except 
for  18  inches  more  of  IJ^-inch  lead  pipe.  The  support, 
preparation,  and  wiping  are  the  same.  The  beginner  by 
this  time  should  feel  very  well  acquainted  with  lead  and 
solder.  Therefore,  the  details  of  these  two  drum  traps 
can  be  left  for  the  beginner  to  work  out  for  himself.  The 
sketches  are  very  distinct  and  readable  and  will  be  of  con- 
siderable assistance.  The  beginner  should  make  these 
traps. 

Points  to  be  Remembered.  — 

First,  use  4-inch  lead  pipe,  8  pounds  to  the  foot. 
Second,  dresser  and  spring  are  new  tools.    Study  their  use. 

5 


6$  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Third,  gradually  work  the  trap  into  shape  with  the  dresser. 

Fourth,  plug  the  hole  with  a  piece  of  lead  pipe. 

Fifth,  prepare  and  wipe  the  plugged  hole  first. 

Sixth,  prepare  and  wipe  the  IJ^-inch  branches. 

Seventh,  special  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  work 
neat. 

Eighth,  two  ways  of  using  the  bending  spring. 
;.   Ninth,  wipe  thin  edges  on  joints. 

Tenth,  do  not  handle  finished  work. 

Eleventh,  clean  and  finish  the  work  neatly. 

THE  PRACTICAL  USE  OF  THE  PRECEDING  EXERCISES 

In  the  foregoing  exercises,  I  have  confined  myself  to  the 
actual  work  of  making  the  various  joints.  Now  I  will 
explain  the  practical  use  of  them. 

Soldering  Iron.- — The  soldering  iron  is  a  tool  that  is  used 
in  work  that  requires  heat  to  fuse  solder  and  the  parts  to 
be  united.  Every  plumber  should  have  at  least  two  irons 
in  his  kit. 

The  Cup  Joint. — While  the  cup  joint  is  not  employed  to 
any  great  extent  in  modern  plumbing,  yet  it  has  its  use  in 
the  installation  of  some  fixtures.  Lavatories,  bath  and 
toilets.are  sometimes  connected  with  a  short  piece  of  lead  on 
the  supply.  The  tail  pieces  on  the  faucets  can  be  soldered 
on  the  lead  by  means  of  a  cup  joint.  A  cup  joint  well  made 
with  a  deep  cup  and  the  solder  well  fused  is  as  strong  as  a 
wiped  joint  in  a  place  of  this  kind.  The  evil  of  the  cup 
joint  is  that  some  mechanics  will  only  fuse  the  surface  and 
leaVe  the  deep  cup  only  filled  with  solder  and  not  fused. 
This  makes  a  tight  joint,  but  extremely  weak.  On  tin- 
lined  pipe  and  block  tin  pipe  the  cup  joint  is  commonly 
used.  When  making  a  cup  joint  on  block-tin  pipe  the  sol- 
dering iron  must  not  touch  the  pipe  and  fine  solder  should 
be  used.  When  tin-lined  pipe  is  being  soldered,  the  tin 
lining  must  not  be  melted. 


PREPARING  AND  WIPING  JOINTS  67 

Overcast  Joint. — The  overcast  joint  is  not  commonly 
used,  but  when  there  is  considerable  lead  work  to  do  the 
plumber  finds  it  very  handy  in  places  where  a  wiped  joint 
would  take  up  too  much  room.  We  use  it  for  an  exercise 
for  the  reason  that  it  teaches  the  beginner  very  rapidly 
the  use  and  control  of  the  soldering  iron. 

Flat  Seams. — These  seams  are  used  in  the  construction 
of  roof  flashers,  tanks  (Sec.  33,  Chapter  XVIII)  and  lead 
safe  wastes  (Sec.  27,  plumbing  code).  A  hatchet  iron  is 
sometimes  used  on  these  seams. 

Wiping  Cloths. — The  wiping  cloths  made  of  whalebone 
ticking  make  good,  serviceable,  and  lasting  cloths.  Oil 
only  should  be  used  to  break  the  cloth  in.  Moleskin  cloths 
are  very  good,  but  they  are  very  hard  to  get  and  cost  con- 
siderably more.  A  plumber  should  always  keep  a  good 
supply  of  ticking  cloths  on  hand.  The  cloths  are  used 
only  for  wiping. 

J^-inch  Round  Joint. — This  joint  is  the  one  most  often 
required  in  actual  practice.  It  serves  to  connect  two  pieces 
of  lead  pipe  of  the  same  or  different  diameters.  It  is  also 
used  to  connect  lead  and  other  materials  of  which  pipe  is 
made.  The  workman,  when  he  gets  out  on  the  job,  finds 
that  his  work  cannot  be  supported  for  wiping  in  such  an 
easy  and  convenient  position  as  illustrated  in  the  exercises. 
It  will  be  necessary  to  wipe  the  joint  at  almost  every  con- 
ceivable angle  and  position.  The  workman  must  employ 
his  ingenuity  to  overcome  any  difficulties  that  may  arise. 
Any  draught  of  air  should  be  avoided  as  it  will  make  the 
solder  cool  quickly. 

2-inch  Brass  Ferrule. — When  it  is  found  necessary  to 
connect  cast-iron  and  lead  pipe,  it  is  done  by  means  of  a 
brass  ferrule  wiped  on  the  lead  pipe.  This  joint  is  a  very 
common  joint  and  is  found  on  sink,  tray,  and  bath  connec- 
tions, as  well  as  in  many  other  connections  that  have  lead 
and  cast-iron  pipes  for  wastes. 


68  .       ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

4-inch  Brass  Ferrule. — The  4-inch  brass  ferrule  wiped 
on  lead  pipe  is  found  under  almost  every  closet.  There  is 
generally  a  piece  of  lead  connecting  the  toilet  with  the  soil 
pipe.  Therefore,  a  brass  ferrule  is  wiped  on  the  lead  and 
the  ferrule  connected  with  the  soil  pipe.  This  joint  is  also 
found  on  rain  leader  connections  near  the  roof,  connecting 
the  gutter  with  the  rain  leader  stack. 

Stop  Cock. — When  a  shut-off  is  required  in  a  line  of  lead 
water  pipe,  these  joints  are  used.  Where  it  is  necessary  to 
joint  lead  and  brass,  this  joint  is  required.  The  art  of  heat 
control  over  the  lead  and  the  brass  is  the  essential  point  in 
these  joints. 

Branch  Joints  %  and  J^  Inches. — Where  it  is  found  neces- 
sary to  take  a  branch  from  a  water  pipe,  this  joint  is  used  at 
the  connection.  In  practice,  this  joint  may  have  to  be 
wiped  in  positions  that  are  rather  difficult  to  reach,  so  the 
wiping  of  joints  in  the  positions  called  for  in  the  exercises 
is  exceedingly  good  practice. 

Branch  Joints  1H  Inches. — These  joints  are  very  common 
and  are  found  on  waste  and  vent  pipes.  They  are  also  found 
on  urinal  flush-pipe  connections  where  the  branch  often  is 
brass  and  the  run  lead. 

Bib. — When  lead  supplies  are  run  directly  to  the  bib  on  a 
sink,  this  joint  is  necessary.  It  becomes  necessary  to  wipe 
in  a  piece  of  brass  for  a  brass-pipe  connection  from  a  lead 
pipe,  in  which  case  this  joint  is  called  for. 

The  Drum  Trap. — The  drum  trap  is  used  under  sinks, 
baths,  showers,  and  trays. 


CHAPTER  VII 

LAYING    TERRA-COTTA    AND    MAKING    CONNECTIONS    TO 

PUBLIC    SEWERS.     WATER   CONNECTIONS    TO 

MAINS  IN  STREETS 

TERRA-COTTA  PIPE 

One  of  the  first  pieces  of  work  which  a  plumber  is  called 
upon  to  do,  when  building  operations  commence,  is  to  run 
in  the  terra-cotta  sewer  from  the  street  sewer  into  the 
foundation  wall. 


FIG.  35. — Connection  of  house  sewer  to  main  sewer. 

When  the  street  sewer  is  laid,  Y-branches  are  left  every 
few  feet.  A  record  of  the  branches  and  their  distance  from 
the  manhole  is  kept  generally  in  the  Department  of  Sewers 
or  Public  Works.  Therefore,  the  exact  measurement  of 
any  branch  can  be  obtained  and  the  branch  found  by  digging 


70 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


down  to  the  depth  of  the  sewer.  A  branch  should  be  chosen 
so  that  the  pipe  can  be  laid  with  a  pitch,  the  same  way  as  the 
main  sewer  pitches.  This  can  be  done  by  getting  the 
measurements  of  two  of  these  branches  and  choosing  the 
one  that  will  serve  best.  When  there  is  a  brick  sewer  in 
the  street  and  no  branches  left  out,  the  sewer  must  be  tap- 
ped wherever  the  house  sewer  requires  it  (see  Fig.  35). 

Digging  Trenches. — After  the  measurements  and  loca- 
tion of  the  house  sewer  and  sewer  branches  are  properly 
located,  the  digging  of  the  trench  is  started.  The  methods 
employed  to  dig  the  trench  vary  according  to  the  nature  of 
the  ground,  that  is,  whether  it  is  sand,  rock,  or  wet  ground. 
A  line  should  be  struck  from  sewer  to  foundation  wall  to 
insure  a  straight  trench. 


tlUil/lif), 


I' 


Side    of   Trench 
(Plank  laid  +igh+) 

FIG.  36. — Laying  of  plank  for  trench  dug  in  sandy  ground. 


Cross -Sec+ion 
o^"  Trench 


Sandy  Ground. — If  the  ground  is  sandy,  the  sides  of  the 
trench  will  have  to  be  sheathed  or  planked  and  the  planks 
braced  so  as  to  prevent  the  bank  caving  in.  As  the  trench 
is  dug  deeper,  the  planks  are  driven  down.  When  the 
trench  is  very  deep,  a  second  row  of  planking  is  necessary. 
The  planks  must  be  kept  well  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
trench  and  close  together,  otherwise  the  sand  will  run  in. 


LAYING  TERRA-COTTA 


71 


It  is  well  to  test  the  planking  as  progress  is  made  by  tamp- 
ing the  sand  on  the  bank  side  of  the  planks. 

Gravel. — Where  the  ground  is  mostly  gravel  and  well 
packed,  the  above  method  of  planking  is  unnecessary.  The 
bank  should  have  a  few  stringers  and  braces  to  support  it.; 
When  only  a  few  planks  are  used  the  term  "  corduroy  the 
bank"  is  used  (see  Fig.  37). 


Side  View  of  Trench 
(Plank  ?'apar+)  of  Trench 

FIG.  37. — Arrangement  of  plank  for  gravel. 

Rock. — Where  rock  is  encountered,  blasting  is  resorted 
to.  The  plumber  should  not  attempt  to  handle  a  job  re- 
quiring the  use  of  powder.  It  is  dangerous  in  the  hands 
of  a  person  not  used  to  handling  it  and  the  work  should  be 
sublet. 

A  sketch  of  the  two  methods  above  for  planking  trenches 
is  given  and  a  little  study  will  make  them  clear. 

LAYING  OF  PIPE 

The  pipe  should  be  laid  on  the  bottom  of  the  trench  to  a 
pitch  of  at  least  %  mcn  Per  f°ot  fall-  In  laYmg>  the 
start  should  be  made  at  the  street  sewer  with  hubs  of  pipe 
toward  the  building.  The  trench  should  be  dug  within 


72  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

a  few  inches  of  the  bottom  of  the  pipe,  then  as  the  pipe  is 
laid  the  exact  depth  is  dug  out,  the  surplus  dirt  being  thrown 
on  the  pipe  already  laid.  The  body  length  of  pipe  should 
be  on  solid  foundation.  A  space  dug  out  for  each  hub  as 
shown  in  Fig.  38  allows  for  this,  also  allows  for  the  proper 
cementing  of  joints.  To  get  the  proper  pitch  of  pipe,  take 
for  example  Y±  inch  per  foot,  a  level  2  feet  long  with  a 
piece  of  wood  or  metal  on  one  end  J^  inch  thick  will  answer. 
The  end  with  the  J^-inch  piece  on  should  be  on  the  lower 
hub  and  the  other  end  resting  on  the  hub  of  the  pipe  about 

JTILE  PIPE 

E±JI 


^  L. 

for  Hub 
.  EARTH  C*  **>'  ^    -  • ' 

FIG.  38. — Laying  terra-cotta  pipe. 

to  be  put  in  place.  When  the  bubble  shows  level,  then  the 
pipe  has  the  J^-inch  fall  per  foot.  If  a  tile  trap  is  used, 
it  should  be  laid  level,  otherwise  the  seal  will  be  weakened 
or  entirely  broken. 

Cutting. — The  cutting  of  tile  is  not  difficult,  but  must  be 
done  carefully  or  the  pipe  will  crack  or  a  piece  will  be  broken 
out,  thus  making  the  pipe  worthless.  To  cut  tile  or  terra- 
cotta pipe,  stand  the  pipe  on  end  with  the  hub  down,  fill  the 
pipe  with  sand  to  the  point  of  cutting.  With  a  sharp  chisel 
and  hammer  cut  around  the  pipe  two  or  three  times  and  the 
pipe  will  crack  around  practically  straight. 

Cementing. — If  the  pipe  is  free  from  cracks,  the  only 
possible  way  roots  can  get  into  the  inside  of  terra-cotta 
pipe  is  through  the  cement  joint.  There  are  two  ways  of 
making  these  joints.  Both  ways  are  explained  below  and 
are  used  today  on  terra-cotta  work. 

First. — The  bottom  of  the  hub  of  pipe  in  place  is  filled 
with  cement  and  the  straight  end  of  the  next  piece  of  pipe  is 


LAYING  TERRA-COTTA 


73 


laid  in  place,  then  more  cement  is  placed  into  the  hub  until 
the  space  between  the  hub  and  the  pipe  is  filled.  In  a 
trench,  a  trowel  is  rather  unhandy  to  work  with,  while  the 
hands  can  be  used  to  better  advantage.  The  cement  can 
be  forced  into  place  with  the  hands  and  then  surfaced  with 
a  trowel.  The  rest  of  the  operation  is  to  swab  out  the 
inside  joint  to  remove  any  cement  that  perchance  was 
forced  through  the  joint  (see  Fig.  39).  The  cement  used 
should  be  J^  cement  and  J^  clean  sharp  sand. 


jCemeni- 


FIG.  39. — Showing  use  of  the  swab. 

Second. — Half  of  the  space  between  the  hub  and  the  pipe 
is  first  packed  with  oakum  and  then  the  other  half  filled 
with  cement  of  the  same  proportions  as  that  used  above. 

LAYING  PIPE  IN  TUNNELS 

If  the  pipe  must  be  run  through  a  tunnel  and  there  are 
perhaps  three  or  four  joints  that  cannot  be  reached,  they 


Pipe  laid  on  Board 

-"-— ^--   I*1— b----r= 
Plan     View 

Tile  Pipe  Laid  in"v" 


EARTH 


TUNNEL 


v///ttnuniiiii/iifuinni7tr/ri[nfiffiiUHiifir//fnr//m/f//fifiiiiuinni//intirfjf^tufiirnn{irniitritri 
FIG.  40. — Pushing  pipe  through  tunnel. 

should  be  put  into  place  as  follows:  The  pipe  should  be 
laid  in  the  trench  from  the  sewer  in  the  street  as  far  as  the 
tunnel,  then  start  at  the  other  end  of  the  tunnel.  Lay  the 
first  piece  of  pipe  on  a  board,  lengthwise  with  the  board, 
nail  two  cleats  in  the  shape  of  a  >  (Fig.  40)  for  the  pipe  to 


74  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

rest  in;  push  this  pipe  and  board  into  the  tunnel  and  then 
cement  into  its  hub  a  second  piece;  push  the  two  pieces  in 
2  feet,  cement  a  third  length  into  the  second  piece  and  push 
the  three  pieces  along  2  feet.  A  workman  can  be  on  the 
sewer  side  of  the  tunnel  and  receive  the  end  of  the  pipe  as 
it  is  pushed  through  the  tunnel,  and  steer  the  pipe  into  the 
hub.  The  joints  in  the  tunnel  will  not  be  as  secure  as  those 
outside.  This  explains  how  pipe  is  run  through  a  tunnel. 

Connecting. — The  proper  method  of  connecting  the  house 
sewer  with  the  street  sewer  is  shown  in  Fig.  35.  The  con- 
nection should  be  made  above  the  spring  of  the  arch.  The 
pipe  should  extend  well  into  the  sewer  so  the  sewage  will 
discharge  into  water  and  not  drop  on  sides. 

Inserting. — To  insert  a  tee  in  a  line  of  pipe  already  laid, 
pursue  the  following  method  (see  Fig.  41):  Cut  or  break 


FIG.  41. — Inserting  length  of  pipe. 

out  one  joint,  preserve  the  bottom  of  the  hub  of  pipe  that 
is  in.  Cut  away  the  top  of  the  hub  on  the  pipe  to  be  in- 
serted, then  place  the  pipe  in  position  and  turn  around 
until  the  part  of  the  hub  on  the  piece  inserted  is  on  the 
bottom.  The  bottom  part  of  the  pipes  now  will  have  a 
hub  to  receive  the  cement.  The  top  part  will  have  to  be 
cemented  carefully,  as  it  is  within  easy  access.  This  can 
be  done  without  difficulty. 

While  laying  the  pipe  a  stopper  is  used  to  prevent  the 
sewer  gases  and  foul  odors  from  escaping.  This  stopper 
sometimes  is  of  tile,  sometimes  a  plug  of  paper  or  burlap. 


LAYING  TERRA-COTTA 


75 


This  stopper  is  sometimes  cemented  in  by  inexperienced 
men  and  the  trouble  created  can  only  be  guessed  at.  If  a 
stopper  is  used,  the  workman  must  see  that  it  is  taken  out. 

Refilling. — After  the  pipe  is  laid  and  cemented,  it  should 
be  covered  and  allowed  to  stand  24  hours  to  give  the  cement 
time  to  harden.  The  dirt  should  then  be  thrown  in  and 
settled  by  means  of  a  tamper  or  by  flooding  with  water. 
The  planks  should  not  be  taken  out  until  the  trench  is  well 
filled.  To  pull  the  plank,  a  chain  or  shoe  and  lever  will 
have  to  be  used.  Where  the  tunnels  are,  dirt  will  have  to 
be  rammed  in  with  a  long  rammer,  care  being  taken  not  to 
disturb  the  pipe.  If  the  refill  is  not  well  rammed  and 
tamped,  the  trench  will  settle  and  cause  a  bad  depression 
in  the  street  surface. 

Terra-cotta  Pipe. — Terra-cotta  pipe  should  be  straight, 
free  from  fire  cracks,  and  salt-glazed.  The  inside  of  the 
hub  and  outside  of  the  plain  end  should  not  be  glazed.  This 
allows  the  cement  to  take  hold. 

TABLE  OF  STANDARD  TERRA-COTTA  PIPE 


Size 

Thickness, 
inches 

Weight  per  ft., 
pounds 

Depth  of 
socket 

Annular  space 

3 

H 

7 

in 

H 

4 

H 

9 

m 

H 

5 

H 

12 

IH 

H 

6 

% 

15 

1% 

H 

8 

H 

23 

2 

% 

9 

% 

23 

2 

H 

10 

H 

35 

2^ 

H 

12 

1 

45 

2^ 

H 

15 

1H 

60 

2^ 

X 

18 

IK 

85 

2H 

l/2 

20 

Ifc 

100 

3 

M 

Terra-cotta   pipe  should   not  be   permitted  in  filled-in 
ground. 


76 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Roots  of  trees  find  their  way  into  the  pipe  through  cracks 
or  cement  joints.  When  the  roots  get  inside  of  the  pipe 
they  grow  until  the  pipe  is  stopped  up.  As  the  roots  cannot 
be  forced  or  wired  out,  the  sewer  must  be  relaid.  The 
writer  has  seen  a  solid  mass  of  roots  10  feet  long  taken  out 
of  a  tile  sewer. 

In  case  terra-cotta  is  laid  in  filled-in  ground,  there  is  only 
one  way  to  insure  the  pipe  from  breaking.  The  pipe  should 
be  laid  on  planks.  Then,  if  the  ground  settles,  the  pipe 
will  not  be  broken. 

WATER  CONNECTION  AND  SERVICE 

Tapping  Main. — The  water  service  for  a  building  is  put 
in  at  the  same  time  as  the  sewer  is  connected  and  run  into 
the  house.  For  a  1  J^-service  pipe  a  J^-inch  tap  is  furnished. 


PIPE. 


FIG.  42.  —  Showing  water  main  and  sewer  in  same  ditch. 

The  water  company  taps  the  main,  at  the  expense  of  the 
plumber,  and  inserts  a  corporation  cock. 

Digging  Trench.  —  The  trench  for  the  water  main  should 
be  dug  at  least  4J^  feet  deep  or  below  frost  level  and  the 
trench  should  be  kept  straight.  When  the  sewer  is  put  in 


LAYING  TERRA-COTTA  77 

at  the  same  time,  one  side  of  the  sewer  trench  can  be  cut 
out  after  it  is  filled  up  to  the  level  of  the  water  main.  The 
water  pipe  can  then  be  laid  on  this  shelf  at  least  2  feet 
away  from  the  original  trench  of  sewer.  Sometimes  the 
surface  of  the  ground  must  not  be  disturbed.  In  this 
case  small  holes  are  dug  and  the  pipe  is  pushed  through  or 
driven  through  under  that  portion  not  dug.  These  places 
are  often  tunnelled  (see  Fig.  42). 

In  digging  in  city  streets,  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
destroy  any  of  the  numerous  pipes  encountered. 

LAYING  PIPE 

The  trench  should  be  dug  straight  out  from  the  house  so 
the  pipe  can  be  laid  and  the  main  tapped  straight  out  from 
the  building.  The  water  companies  keep  a  record  of  these 
taps  so  that  in  case  of  trouble  the  street  can  be  opened  and 
the  water  shut  off.  In  laying  the  water  service,  the  pipe 
from  the  curb  to  the  main  should  be  laid  first.  This  takes 
in  all  the  pipe  in  the  street.  At  the  main  there  is  a  shut- 
off  in  the  tap.  Another  stop  with  T  or  wheel  handle  must 
be  placed  just  inside  the  curb  line.  This  is  called  a  curb 
cock  (see  Fig.  43).  One  trench  either  outside  or  inside  of  the 
curb  should  be  at  least  15  feet  long  so  that  a  full  length  of 
pipe  can  be  laid  in  the  trench.  It  is  generally  impossible  to 
open  a  trench  the  full  length  the  pipe  is  to  be  run.  A  trench 
10  feet  long  is  dug,  then  8  feet  left,  and  another  10-  or  8-fodt 
trench  is  dug  and  the  two  are  connected  with  a  small  tunnel 
and  pipe  pushed  through.  When  the  pipe  has  been  put  in 
place  between  the  curb  and  main,  the  water  is  turned  on  and 
the  pipe  flushed  out.  The  valve  at  the  curb  should  now  be 
shut  off,  and  if  there  are  any  leaks  they  will  show.  The 
street  part  is  now  ready  to  fill  in.  At  this  point  Fig.  43 
should  be  studied.  Note  the  piece  of  lead  attached  to  the 
pipe  and  corporation  cock.  This  piece  of  lead  should  be 


78 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


extra  heavy  and  always  laid  in  place  the  shape  of  the  letter 
S  or  goose  neck.  In  case  the  street  should  settle,  this  piece 
of  lead  will  allow  for  it.  These  "lead  connections"  or 
"goose  necks"  are  made  as  follows:  3  ft.  of  %  lead  pipe; 
1-inch  brass  solder  nipple  (wiped  on) ;  one  brass  corporation 
cock  coupling  (wiped  on). 

Laying  Pipe. — This  lead  connection  can  be  screwed  on 
the  pipe  after  the  pipe  is  laid,  then  bent  and  coupled  on 
the  main  with  the  coupling. 


CURB  COCK 
FIG.  43. — Water  main  from  street  to  foundation  wall. 

After  the  pipe  has  been  tested  as  far  as  the  curb,  the 
trench  in  the  street  can  be  filled  as  described  later.  The 
pipe  from  the  curb  to  the  building  can  now  be  laid.  If 
necessary  to  push  the  pipe  through  a  tunnel,  the  end  of  the 
pipe  should  first  be  capped.  Start  by  screwing  a  length 
in  the  curb  cock.  If  the  other  end  of  the  pipe  comes  in  a 
tunnel  an  additional  length  must  be  put  on  before  putting 
in  place  so  that  an  end  will  come  in  the  open  trench.  When 
the  building  is  reached  and  before  the  stop  cock  is  put  on, 
the  valve  at  the  curb  should  be  opened  full  and  the  pipe 
flushed  out.  The  valve  can  then  be  put  on  and  water 
turned  on  to  test  the  pipe. 

Setting  Curb  Box. — A  cast-iron  box,  adjustable  length, 
with  cover  should  extend  from  the  curb  cock  to  the  sur- 


LAYING  TERRA-COTTA  79 

face.  This  makes  it  possible  with  a  long  rod  to  control 
the  water  service  into  the  building.  To  set  a  curb  box 
some  flat  stones  should  be  laid  around  the  curb  cock  and  the 
box  set  on  these  stones.  Then  the  space  around  the  box 
and  pipe  should  be  closed  in  with  brick  or  other  covering 
to  keep  the  sand  from  washing  in  on  the  curb  cock.  The 
box  should  be  adjusted  for  height  and  then  held  in  place 
by  placing  the  curb  key  rod  in  place  and  holding  the  rod 
and  box  while  the  trench  is  filled.  The  refill  should  be 
tamped  evenly  on  all  sides  of  the  box. 

Refill. — In  refilling  the  trench  around  the  corporation 
cock  and  goose  neck,  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken. 
The  writer  has  seen  cases  when  indifferent  workmen  have 
tossed  heavy  stones  in  the  ditch  and  broken  off  the  corpora- 
tion cock  or  destroyed  the  goose  neck.  After  the  pipe  is 
covered  with  18  inches  of  refill  and  tunnels  have  been  filled, 
water  can  be  run  in  the  trench  and  will  settle  the  refill. 

There  are  a  number  of  special  points  concerning  water 
services  and  taps  at  mains  that  should  not  be  overlooked. 
Take  for  example  a  water  service  pipe  which  must  be  run 
through  ground  where  electricity  is  escaping  under  trolley 
tracks,  around  power  houses,  etc.  The  electricity  will  enter 
the  pipe  and  wherever  it  leaves  the  pipe  a  hole  is  burned. 
The  surface  of  the  pipe  in  a  short  time  will  be  full  of  small 
pith  marks  and  will  soon  leak.  A  good  way  to  add  to  the 
life  of  the  pipe  under  these  conditions  is  to  make  a  star 
of  copper  and  solder  it  on  to  the  pipe  in  the  street.  Another 
piece  of  copper  should  be  put  on  the  pipe  near  the  building. 
The  electricity  will  leave  the  pipe  by  way  of  the  points  on 
the  star.  This  method  may  not  be  a  cure  for  electrolysis, 
but  will  add  to  the  life  of  the  pipe.  Another  method  em- 
ployed is  to  put  the  pipe  in  the  center  of  a  square  box,  then 
fill  the  box  with  hot  pitch.  When  this  is  hardened  the 
pipe  will  have  a  covering  that  will  keep  out  any  moisture 
and  bar  electricity  to  a  marked  degree. 


80 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Materials  Used. — Galvanized  steel  pipe  does  not  last 
under  ground. 

Galvanized  iron,  heavy  lead,  and  brass  are  used.  Wooden 
pipes  were  once  used  and  stood  years  of  service.  No  service 
smaller  than  lj^  should  be  used. 

When  the  water  service  pipe  passes  through  the  founda- 
tion wall,  the  pipe  should  not  be  built  in,  but  a  small  arch 
should  be  built  over  the  pipe  or  a  piece  of  XX  cast-iron  pipe 
can  be  used  as  a  sleeve  (Fig.  44). 


FIG.  44. — Free  space  around  pipe  passing  through  wall. 

Points  to  Remember. — 

SEWER  INSTALLATION 

First,  select  good  sound  pipe  and  fittings. 

Second,  locate  branch  connection  in  street  sewer. 

Third,  lay  out  run  of  house  sewer. 

Fourth,  take  out  necessary  permits  from  departments  of 
sewer. 

Fifth,  dig  trench  in  the  street,  then  into  the  house. 

Sixth,  lay  pipe  and  cement  joints. 

Seventh,  refill  trench,  tamping  every  foot. 

Eighth,  cast-iron  pipe  for  sewer  is  found  under  another 
heading. 


LAYING  TERRA-COTTA  81 

WATER  SERVICE 

First,  take  out  necessary  permits. 

Second,  list  material  and  deliver  to  job. 

Third,  lay  out  and  dig  trench. 

Fourth,  have  main  tapped. 

Fifth,  lay  pipe  to  curb  and  test. 

Sixth,  fill  in  street  trench. 

Seventh,  lay  pipe  into  building  and  test. 

Eighth,  set  curb  box. 

Ninth,  refill  trench. 

Tenth,  thoroughly  consider  any  special  conditions. 

Street  Sewer. — Large  pipe  in  streets  to  receive  all  soil  and 
waste  from  buildings. 

House  Sewer. — Conveys  sewage  from  building  to  street 
sewer,  extends  from  foundation  wall  to  sewer. 

Street  Main. — Water  pipe  running  parallel  with  the  street, 
belonging  to  the  water  company. 

Service  Pipe. — Runs  from  the  street  main  into  the 
building. 

Corporation  Cock. — Brass  stop  tapped  into  street  main. 

Goose  Neck. — Lead  pipe  which  connects  the  street  main 
and  service  pipe. 

Trench. — Hole  dug  to  receive  pipe. 

Main  Tapped. — Hole  drilled  through  wall  of  main  and 
a  thread  made  on  it  while  pressure  is  on. 

Curb  Cock. — Brass  shut-off  placed  at  curb. 

Solder  Nipple. — Piece  of  brass  pipe  with  thread  on  one 
end  and  plain  on  the  other  end  which  connects  lead  and 
iron. 

Coupling. — Fitting  which  connects  two  pieces  of  pipe. 

Stop  Cock. — Brass  fitting  for  stopping  flow  of  water. 

Curb  Box. — Iron  box  extending  from  curb  cock  to  surface. 

Curb  Key. — A  long  key  to  fit  in  side  of  curb  box  to  operate 
curb  cock. 

Swab. — Stick  with  ball  of  rags  or  paper  on  one  end. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


INSTALLING  OF  FRENCH  OR  SUB-SOIL  DRAINS 

When  a  building  is  erected  on  a  site  that  is  wet  or  springy, 
some  means  of  carrying  off  the  surplus  water  in  the  ground 
must  be  provided  for,  or  the  basement  of  the  building  will 
be  flooded  with  water.  For  the  thorough  understanding  of 
the  methods  employed  in  laying  a  drain  of  this  kind,  I  will 
go  over  it  carefully  and  the  beginner  can  read  it  and  then 
study  it,  and  understand  just  how  it  is  done.  A  site  may 
appear  to  be  dry  on  the  surface  of  the  ground  and  yet  be 
very  wet  under  the  surface.  If  no  information  can  be  had 

regarding  the  site,  it  is  always  well 
to  drain  the  site  if  it  is  on  a  slope 
or  near  a  body  of  water  and  on 
the  water  shed  of  a  river  or  lake. 
If  a  building  is  a  large  one  and 
the  foundation  goes  down  very 
deep,  the  site  should  always  be 
drained.  The  drain  is  laid  under 
the  basement  floor  and  around 
the  outside  of  the  foundation  wall 
on  a  level  with  or  lower  than  the 
basement  floor.  The  value  of 

draining  a  building  site  when  the  building  is  first  started  is 
very  often  overlooked.  The  cost  of  the  drain  will  be  saved 
in  a  few  years  as  the  basement  will  be  free  from  all  ex- 
cessive dampness.  The  expense  of  installing  a  sub-soil 
after  the  building  is  up  and  in  use  is  great  as  well  as  incon- 
venient. The  drain  is  called  " sub-soil  drain"  on  account 

82 


FIG.  45. — Sub-soil  drain. 


INSTALLING  OF  SUB-SOIL  DRAINS  83 

of  its  location  under  the  ground  and  on  account  of  its  duty 
of  taking  off  all  surplus  water  that  is  underground.  With 
the  surface  water  taken  off  by  the  surface  drains  and  the 
sub-soil  drained  by  the  sub-soil  drains,  a  wet  building  site 
can  be  made  practically  dry  (see  Fig.  45). 

Materials  Used  in  Sub-soil  Construction. — The  object 
of  the  drain  is  to  collect  water  and  carry  it  away  from  the 
building  by  means  of  pipes.  Terra-cotta  pipes,  with  or 
without  hubs,  are  used.  Perforated  tile  pipe  is  sometimes 
used.  This  pipe  is  unglazed  terra-cotta  pipe  with  1-inch 
holes  in  the  sides  about  3  or  4  inches  from  the  center. 
These  holes  allow  the  surplus  water  to  enter  the  bore  of  the 
pipe  and  thus  be  carried  off  beyond  the  building  site. 

When  the  sub-soil  of  a  small  building  needs  draining, 
the  trenches  made  for  the  house  drain  and  its  branches  are 
used  as  a  drain  in  the  following  manner:  The  trenches  are 
dug  deeper  than  is  required  for  the  house  drain.  The 
trenches  are  then  filled  to  the  correct  level  with  broken 
stones.  There  is  space  between  these  stones  for  the  water 
to  find  passage  to  a  point  away  from  the  building.  When 
this  method  is  employed,  some  provision  must  be  made  to 
prevent  the  house  drain  from  settling.  When  locating  the 
drain,  we  must  consider  approximately  the  amount  of  water 
that  is  likely  to  be  in  the  soil  and  required  to  be  carried  off. 
If  there  is  considerable  water,  the  pipes  should  extend  all 
around  the  outside  of  the  building  foundation  wall,  also 
a  main  pipe  running  under  the  cellar  bottom  with  six 
branches,  three  branches  on  each  side. 

If  there  is  not  a  great  deal  of  surplus  water  in  the  soil,  the 
drain  around  the  outside  of  the  foundation  wall  should  be 
put  in  and  one  drain  line  running  through  the  basement 
will  be  sufficient. 

Laying  the  Pipe. — The  drain  pipe  should  be  handled  with 
care,  for  it  is  easily  broken.  The  trench  should  be  laid  out 
and  dug,  then  the  pipe  can  be  laid  in  it  with  a  grade  toward 


84  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

the  outlet  or  discharge.  If  pipes  with  a  hub  on  one  end  are 
used,  the  hub  should  not  be  cemented.  A  little  oakum 
is  packed  in  the  hub  to  steady  the  pipe  and  keep  sand  out, 
the  bottom  of  joint  is  cemented,  a  piece  of  tar  paper  can  be 
laid  over  the  top  of  the  joint  to  keep  the  sand  out.  With 
joints  made  this  way,  the  water  can  find  its  way  to  the  bore 
of  the  pipe  and  yet  the  sand  will  be  kept  out  of  the  pipe. 
As  soon  as  the  water  gets  into  the  bore  of  the  pipe  it  has  a 
clear  passageway  to  some  discharge  point  away  from  the 
building.  If  tile  pipes  without  any  hubs  are  used,  some 
covering  should  be  put  around  the  joint  to  keep  out  the  sand 
and  still  allow  the  water  to  find  its  way  into  the  pipes. 

Discharge  of  Sub -soil  Drain. — The  water  that  accumu- 
lates in  a  sub-soil  drain  must  be  carried  off  to  some  point 
away  from  the  building.  As  the  pipes  are  generally  under 
the  cellar  bottom  and  under  the  house  drain,  it  is  very 
evident  that  this  drain  cannot  discharge  into  the  house 
drain  sewer,  directly.  If  the  building  site  is  on  a  hill,  the 
drain  can  be  carried  out  and  discharged  on  the  surface  at 
a  point  that  is  somewhat  lower  than  the  level  of  the  pipe 
under  the  building.  Where  this  cannot  be  done,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  have  the  different  lines  of  pipes  discharge  into 
a  pit.  The  water  is  accumulated  in  this  pit  until  it  is 
filled,  then  it  will  automatically  empty  itself  as  later 
explained. 

Pit  Construction. — The  pit  for  the  sub-soil  water  is 
constructed  of  cement.  A  pit  2  feet  square  or  2  feet  in 
diameter  and  3  feet  deep  will  answer  all  requirements.  A 
pit  of  this  depth  will  allow  a  pitch  for  all  lines  of  pipe,  and 
is  large  enough  for  ordinary  installations.  The  pit  is  built 
up  to  the  surface  of  the  cemented  floor  of  the  basement 
and  covered  with  a  removable  iron  cover. 

Cellar  Drainer  or  Pump. — A  cellar  drainer  is  employed 
to  empty  the  above-mentioned  pit.  The  cellar  drainer 
works  automatically.  When  the  pit  is  filled  with  water, 


INSTALLING  OF  SUB-SOIL  DRAINS  85 

the  drainer  operates  and  empties  the  pit  and  discharges 
the  water  into  a  sink  or  open  sewer  connection.  When  the 
pit  is  emptied,  the  drainer  shuts  off.  The  cellar  drainer 
is  operated  by  water  pressure.  When  the  valve  is  opened, 
a  small  jet  of  water  is  discharged  into  a  larger  pipe.  The 
velocity  of  this  small  jet  of  water  creates  a  suction  and 
carries  along  with  it  some  of  the  water  in  the  pit.  This 
suction  continues  until  the  tank  is  empty.  There  should 
always  be  a  strainer  on  the  suction  pipe,  also  on  the  supply 
pipe,  to  prevent  any  particles  of  dirt  getting  into  the  valve. 
The  pipes  leading  to  and  from  the  drainer  should  empty  into 
an  open  sink  where  it  can  be  seen.  There  is  a  possibility 
of  the  drainer  valve  leaking  and  then  the  water  pressure 
will  leak  through  it,  causing  a  waste  of  water.  If  this  leak- 
age can  be  seen  where  it  discharges,  then  the  trouble  can  be 
rectified.  The  cellar  drainer  is  connected  directly  with  the 
water  pressure  and  should  have  a  valve  close  to  the  connec- 
tion to  control  the  supply. 


CHAPTER  IX 


STORM  AND  SANITARY  DRAINAGE  WITH  SEWAGE  DISPOSAL 

IN  VIEW 

The  accompanying  drawing  of  storm  and  sanitary  drains 
should  be  studied  in  detail  by  the  reader.  The  location  of 
each  trap  and  fitting  should  be  studied  carefully  and  the 
reason  that  it  is  put  in  that  particular  place  should  be 
thoroughly  understood.  Below,  each  plan  has  been  taken 
and  gone  over  in  detail,  bringing  out  the  reasons  for  fittings 
and  traps,  also  the  arrangement  of  the  piping. 

The  first  thing  to  note  in  Fig.  46  is  the  number  and  kinds 
of  fixtures  to  be  drained.  There  is  in  the  basement  a  set 
of  three-part  wash  trays.  This  will  re- 
quire a  2-inch  waste  and  a  1^-inch 
vent.  There  is  in  the  drawing  a  2-inch 
waste  extending  to  the  fixtures  above. 
On  the  same  line  is  a  rain  leader  with 
a  trap  showing  also  a  4-inch  floor  drain. 
There  are  two  4-inch  rain  leaders  on  the 
opposite  corners  of  the  plan,  in  the  rear 
of  the  building.  There  is  a  4-inch  soil 
stack  for  fixtures  above  and  a  4-inch  soil 
stack  in  the  basement  on  the  same  line 
FIG.  46.  for  a  basement  toilet.  On  the  front 

there  are  rain  leaders  in  each  corner. 
These  will  be  connected  outside  of  the  house  trap  (this 
feature  should  be  noted).  The  outlets  that  are  to  dis- 
charge into  the  house  drain  are  as  follows: 

86 


STORM  AND  SANITARY  DRAINAGE  87 

Two  4-inch  rain  leaders. 

One  2-inch  sink  waste. 

.One  2-inch  wash  tray  waste. 

One  4-inch  floor  drain. 

One  4-inch  soil  pipe. 

One  4-inch  closet  connection. 

Two  4-inch  front  rain  leaders  to  discharge  into  house 
sewer. 

If  we  were  to  install  this  job,  we  would  first  locate  each 
pipe  that  enters  the  house  drain.  The  lowest  outlet  would 
be  particularly  noted,  in  this  case  the  4-inch  floor  drain. 
From  this  drain  we  must  make  sure  that  at  least  J^  inch 
to  the  foot  fall  is  secured.  We  must  then  locate  the  house 
sewer  where  it  enters  the  foundation  wall,  then  the  work  can 
be  started.  I  will  not  attempt  to  list  the  material  that  is 
necessary  for  this  work,  at  this  time.  With  all  the  material 
at  hand  the  house  drain  is  started.  All  of  this  work  is 
installed  under  the  ground,  therefore  trenches  must  be 
dug  for  all  the  piping.  The  plumber  must  lay  these  trenches 
out  and  in  doing  so  he  must  have  in  mind  all  connections 
and  the  fittings  he  can  use  so  that  the  trenches  can  be  dug 
at  the  right  angle.  The  trenches  must  be  dug  allowing  a 
pitch  for  the  pipe.  The  height  of  the  cellar  is  8  feet  below 
the  joists.  A  stick  is  cut  8  feet  long  which  can  be  used  to 
get  the  trenches  below  the  cement  floor  at  the  right  depth. 
After  the  digging  is  completed,  the  house  trap,  which  is  a 
6-inch  running  trap,  is  caulked  into  a  length  of  6-inch 
cast-iron  pipe.  This  piece  of  pipe  is  pushed  out  toward 
the  sewer  bringing  the  trap  near  the  foundation  wall,  on 
the  inside.  The  fittings  and  traps  and  pipe  are  caulked 
in  place  as  fast  as  possible.  When  possible,  the  joints  are 
caulked  outside  of  the  trench  in  an  upright  position. 
There  are  a  number  of  different  ways  to  caulk  this  pipe 
together,  and  to  make  it  clear  to  the  beginner  just  how  it 
is  done  the  following  exercise  is  suggested.  This  job 


88 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


brings  in  the  caulking  of  pipes,  traps,  and  fittings  in  various 
positions.  Two  or  three  can  work  on  this  job  together. 
Fig.  47  shows  how  the  pipe  and  fittings  are  put  together, 
which  needs  no  further  explanation.  Therefore,  we  will 
go  over  in  detail  only  the  caulking  of  the  joints  in  the  various 
positions. 


"Running  Trap 
wi+h  ZHubven-hs 


FIG.  47. 

Material  Needed. — One  length  of  4-inch  extra  heavy 
cast-iron  pipe,  single  hub;  two  lengths  of  4-inch  extra 
heavy  cast-iron  pipe,  double  hub;  one  running  trap,  one 
full  Y,  one  4-inch  Y±  bend ;  two  4-inch  cleanout  screws  with 
iron  body;  one  4-inch  vent  cap;  one  4-incn  J^  bend;  30 
pounds  of  block  lead;  2  pounds  of  oakum. 

Tools  Required. — Ladle,  asbestos  pourer,  hammer,  cold 
chisel,  yarning  iron,  two  caulking  irons,  furnace  and  pot. 

The  beginner  should  start  at  the  trap  and  caulk  the  joints 
with  the  trap  held  in  place.  The  cold  chisel  should  be 
sharp  as  it  is  used  to  cut  the  cast-iron  pipe. 


STORM  AND  SANITARY  DRAINAGE  89 

To  caulk  the  straight  end  of  cast-iron  pipe  into  the  hub 
end  and  make  a  water-tight  joint  when  the  pipe  is  in  a 
vertical  position,  the  spigot  end  of  the  pipe  is  entered  into 
the  hub  end  of  another  piece.  A  wad  of  oakum  is  taken 
and  forced  into  the  hub  with  the  yarning  iron.  This  piece 
of  oakum  is  forced  to  the  bottom  of  the  hub,  then  another 
piece  is  put  in.  The  oakum  is  set  and  packed  by  using  the 
yarning  iron  and  hammer.  The  hub  is  half  filled  with 
oakum.  The  oakum  is  forced  tight  enough  to  make  a 
water-tight  joint.  If  the  oakum  used  comes  in  a  bale, 
pieces  of  it  will  have  to  be  taken  and  rolled  into  long  ropes 
about  18  inches  long,  the  thickness  of  the  rope  correspond- 
ing with  the  space  between  the  hub  and  the  pipe.  If 
rope  oakum  is  used,  the  strands  of  the  rope  can  be  used. 
After  the  oakum  is  well  packed  into  place  and  the  pipe  is 
lined  up  and  made  straight,  molten  lead  is  poured  in  and 
the  hub  filled.  When  the  lead  has  cooled,  set  the  lead  with 
the  caulking  tool  and  hammer,  making  one  blow  on  each 
side  of  the  joint.  This  sets  the  lead  evenly  on  every  side. 
If  there  is  any  surplus  lead,  it  can  now  be  cut  off,  using 
the  hammer  and  cold  chisel.  The  caulking  iron  is  again 
taken  and  the  lead  next  to  the  pipe  is  tamped,  striking  the 
iron  with  the  hammer  at  an  angle  to  drive  the  lead  against 
the  pipe.  After  this  has  been  done  all  around,  the  caulk- 
ing iron  is  held  in  such  a  position  that  the  lead  around  the 
hub  will  receive  the  force  of  the  blow.  After  this  has  been 
done,  the  center  of  the  lead  is  caulked  and  the  joint  should 
be  tight.  With  a  little  practice,  this  can  be  done  very 
rapidly.  The  lead  should  be  poured  in  while  it  is  very 
hot.  The  caulking  must  not  be  done  by  hitting  heavy 
blows  as  there  is  a  possibility  of  splitting  the  hub  and 
thereby  rendering  the  joint  unfit  for  use. 

Caulking  Joint  in  Horizontal  Position. — It  is  necessary 
in  a  great  many  cases  to  caulk  a  joint  in  a  position  where 
the  lead  would  run  out  of  the  joint  unless  provision  were 


90  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

made  to  hold  it  in.  To  caulk  a  joint  in  a  position  of  this 
kind,  the  pipe  is  lined  up  and  secured,  then  the  oakum  is  put 
in  and  forced  to  the  bottom  of  the  hub.  Then  a  joint  run- 
ner, which  is  an  asbestos  rope  about  2  feet  long  and  about 
1  inch  in  diameter,  is  fitted  around  the  pipe  and  forced 
against  the  hub  where  it  is  clamped  by  means  of  an  attached 
clamp.  The  clamp  is  put  on  the  top  of  the  pipe  and  so 
arranged  that  a  channel  will  be  left  in  a  V  shape.  This 
channel  allows  the  hot  lead  to  run  between  the  asbestos 
runner  and  the  hub.  When  the  lead  has  had  a  chance  to 
cool,  the  asbestos  runner  is  taken  off.  Where  the  clamp 
was,  there  will  be  a  triangular  piece  of  lead  sticking  out 
beyond  the  face  of  the  hub.  This  piece  has  to  be  cut  off, 
but  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  do  so  until  it  has  been 
caulked  in  place  and  well  set;  also  the  rest  of  the  lead  should 
be  set.  Then  the  cold  chisel  can  be  used  and  this  extra 
piece  of  lead  taken  off.  The  caulking  of  the  lead  in  this 
position  is  the  same  as  in  the  previous  position  and  should 
be  carried  out  closely.  The  beginner  should  understand 
that  it  is  necessary  to  have  not  only  the  joints  tight  so 
that  running  water  will  not  leak  out  of  them,  but  that 
the  joints  must  stand  a  water  test.  The  testing  of  soil 
stacks  is  explained  under  another  heading.  The  lines  of 
cast-iron  pipe  depend  to  a  considerable  extent  upon  these 
joints  to  make  the  whole  line  rigid. 

Caulking  of  Fittings. — The  caulking  of  fittings,  while 
done  the  same  as  a  straight  pipe,  is  far  more  difficult.  The 
improper  making  of  these  joints  is  the  cause  of  many 
leaks.  A  long  sweep  fitting  is  caulked  without  a  great 
deal  of  difficulty.  If  a  short  bend  fitting  is  used,  the  matter 
of  caulking  is  difficult.  The  fitting  is  so  short  that  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  get  a  caulking  iron  into  the  throat. 
The  mechanics  will  have  to  work  at  the  throat  from  each 
side  until  this  part  has  been  sufficiently  caulked.  I  call 
attention  to  this  point,  for  I  know  it  to  be  a  failure  in  a 


STORM  AND  SANITARY  DRAINAGE 


91 


large  number  of  jobs  when  it  comes  to  put  the  test  on.  In 
order  to  caulk  the  fittings,  they  must  be  put  in  their  exact 
location  and  positions  before  the  lead  is  poured  in,  for  after 


FIG.  50. 


FIG.  49. 


FIG.  51. 


the  lead  is  once  in  the  fitting  cannot  be  moved.  When 
there  is  a  series  of  fittings  on  a  line,  their  positions  in  rela- 
tion to  each  other  must  be  considered  before  the  lead  is 
poured. 


92 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Fig  48  shows  the  same  fixture  and  stack  connections  as 
Fig.  46.  Two  4-inch  lines  run  through  the  cellar,  one  a 
sanitary  drain,  the  other  a  storm  drain.  Each  4-inch  line 
has  an  intercepting  trap.  On  the  sewer  side  of  these  traps 


FIG.  52. 

the  two  lines  are  brought  together,  beyond  which  point  the 
two  front  rain  leaders  connect;  each  of  the  two  front 
leaders  is  trapped  separately. 

Fig.  49  differs  from  the  preceding  one  in  only  two  points. 
First,  the  two  front  leaders  are  brought  into  the  cellar  and 
connected  into  the  storm  drain  on  the  house  side  of  the 


STORM  AND  SANITARY  DRAINAGE  93 

intercepting  trap.  Second,  the  storm  and  sanitary  drains 
are  connected  on  the  outside  of  the  building. 

Fig.  50  shows  the  same  fixtures  collected  into  a  4-inch 
house  drain,  and  the  rain  leaders  run  entirely  on  the  outside 
of  the  building.  This  plan  is  a  good  one  as  all  the  storm 
water  is  kept  entirely  outside  the  building.  If  the  storm 
drains  are  kept  5  feet  away  from  the  cellar  walls  (see  Plumb- 
ing Code)  the  pipes  can  be  of  tile.  Another  good  feature 
of  this  plan  is  that  all  the  pipes  under  the  cellar  are  4-inch. 

Fig.  51  is  similar  to  Fig.  46,  the  difference  being  in  the 
location  of  the  floor  drain  and  the  connection  of  the  two 
rear  rain  leaders,  into  the  house  drain. 

In  Fig.  52  the  drains  shown  take  the  waste  and  storm 
water  from  the  apartment  building,  also  a  building  set  in 
the  rear.  The  leader  pipes  in  this  case  are  trapped  on  the 
outside  of  the  wall.  The  building  in  the  rear  you  will 
note  has  a  separate  fresh  air  inlet  and  house  trap,  and  the 
house  sewer  is  continued  through  the  front  house  and 
connected  into  the  house  drain  of  the  front  building,  on 
the  sewer  side  of  the  intercepting  trap. 

These  drawings  should  be  studied  carefully  and  the 
student  should  in  each  case  list  correctly  all  of  the  material 
required  for  the  installation  of  these  jobs. 


of  Chisel 


FIG.  53. — Cutting  cast-iron  pipe. 

Cutting  Cast-iron  Pipe. — To  cut  cast-iron  pipe,  a  sharp 
cold  chisel  and  hammer  are  needed.  The  pipe  is  marked 
all  around,  just  where  it  is  to  be  cut.  Then  it  is  laid  with 
the  part  of  the  pipe  that  is  to  be  cut  resting  on  a  block  of 
wood.  A  groove  is  cut  with  the  hammer  and  chisel  around 
the  pipe.  One  person  can  turn  the  pipe  while  the  other 


94  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

does  the  cutting.  After  a  little  experience  one  man  can 
cut  and  roll  the  pipe  alone.  This  groove  is  cut  deeper  and 
deeper  until  the  pipe  breaks  apart.  If  standard  pipe  is 
being  cut,  a  file  is  generally  resorted  to  for  cutting  the 
groove.  On  account  of  the  lightness  of  the  pipe,  a  hammer 
and  chisel  will  crack  the  pipe  lengthwise.  When  cutting 
extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe,  a  good  heavy  blow  must  be 
struck  to  cause  the  chisel  to  cut  into  the  iron.  After  a 
few  cuts,  the  beginner  will  understand  the  weight  of  blow 
that  must  be  struck  to  cut  the  pipe  quickly. 


CHAPTER  X 

SOIL  AND  WASTE  PIPES  AND  VENTS.     TESTS 

SOIL  PIPES 

The  term  "soil  pipes"  means  pipe  that  receives  the  dis- 
charge from  water  closets.  The  size  of  a  soil  pipe  for  ordi- 
nary dwellings  should  be  4  inches. 

SIZE  OF  SOIL  PIPES 

One  to  three  closets — 4-inch  XX  cast-iron. 
Four  to  eight  closets— 5-inch  XX  cast-iron. 
Eight  to  twelve  closets — 6-inch  XX  cast-iron. 

There  are  cases  when  3-inch  XX  cast-iron  pipe  is  used, 
but  the  practice  is  not  recommended. 

The  soil  pipe  should  be  well  supported  and  held  in  place. 
The  connection  between  soil  pipe  and  closet  should  be  of 
lead  to  allow  for  any  expansion  or  settling  that  might  take 
place. 

Material  of  Soil  Pipes. — Soil  pipe  in  common  use  today 
is  made  of  light  cast  iron,  tar-coated,  extra  heavy  cast 
iron  uncoated  and  coated,  galvanized  wrought-iron  pipe, 
and  steel  pipe.  The  best  kind  to  use  depends  upon  the 
job  and  place  where  it  is  to  be  used.  All  kinds  of  bends 
and  fittings  can  be  had  in  any  of  the  above-mentioned 
materials.  In  choosing  the  material  of  the  pipe  that  is 
best  to  use,  the  following  points  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered. 

First,  new  work  or  overhauling. 
Second,  temporary  or  permanent  job. 
Third,  construction  of  building. 

95 


96  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Fourth,  amount  allowed  for  cost  of  materials  on  job.    • 
Fifth,  size  of  job,  that  is,  the  number  of  toilets. 
Sixth,  size  of  chases  and  pipe  partitions. 

Location  of  Soil  Pipe. — The  location  of  the  soil  pipe  de- 
pends to  a  great  extent  upon  the  location  of  the  toilets. 
The  soil  stack  should  be  located  on  an  inside  partition. 
The  horizontal  pipe  should  not  run  over  expensively 
decorated  ceilings  unless  run  inside  of  a  trough  made  of 
copper  or  sheet  lead.  As  far  as  possible,  the  pipes  should 
be  confined,  to  runs  short,  and  the  number  of  bends 
reduced. 

SOIL-PIPE  FITTINGS 

Soil-pipe  fittings  can  be  had  from  stock  almost  to  suit 
the  conditions.  I  will  enumerate  a  few.  The  names  of 
these  fittings  should  be  familiar  to  the  mechanic  so  that 
when  ordering  he  can  give  the  correct  name.  }{ $,  %,  %, 
Y±  bend,  sanitary  tee,  tapped  tee,  side  outlet  fitting,  return 
bend,  cross  branches,  double  Y,  double  TY,  traps.  The 
uses  of  these  cast-iron  fittings  perhaps  are  obvious,  but 
a  word  about  the  use  of  each  one  will  be  of  service. 

The  }^  bend  is  used  to  change  the  direction  of  run  of  pipe 
90°.  A  long-sweep  J^  bend  is  used  on  work  requiring  the 
best  practice.  %,  Jfe,  and  Y§  bends  are  used  to  change 
the  direction  of  pipe  45°,  22J^°,  and  16%°.  Two  %  bends 
should  be  used  in  preference  to  one  J£  bend  where  there  is 
sufficient  room.  Side  outlet  J^  bend  is  used  for  waste 
connection.  They  can  be  had  with  an  outlet  on  either  side 
of  the  heel.  Their  use  is  not  recommended. 

Return  bends  are  used  on  fresh-air  inlets.  Tees  are  used 
for  vents  only.  Ys  are  used  wherever  possible.  The  use 
of  a  Y-branch  together  with  an  %  bend  for  a  90°  connection 
with  the  main  line  is  always  preferable  to  a  T  Y  or,  as  they 
are  commonly  called,  sanitary  T.  A  tapped  fitting  gets 
its  name  because  it  is  tapped  for  iron  pipe  thread.  Tapped 


SOIL  AND  WASTE  PIPES  AND  VENTS  97 

fittings  are  used  for  venting  and  should  not  be  used  for 
waste  unless  the  tap  enters  the  fitting  at  an  angle  of  45°. 

These  fittings  and  pipe  are  joined  by  first  caulking  with 
oakum  and  pouring,  with  one  continuous  pour,  the  hub 
full  of  molten  metal.  When  cool,  the  lead  should  be  set 
and  then  caulked  around  the  pipe  and  around  the  hub. 

The  amount  of  lead  and  oakum  required  for  various- 
sized  joints  is  as  follows: 

Pipe  size 23456  8     10         12     15 

Pounds  of  lead \Y2     2^     3       3%     4^       6       7^       9     11^ 

Oakum  (ounce) ....     4        6         8     10       12         16     20        24    30 

Rust  Joints. — The  plumber  is  called  upon  to  run  cast- 
iron  pipe  in  places  where  lead  and  oakum  will  not  be  of 
service  for  the  joints.  In  cases  of  this  kind,  a  rust  joint  is 
made.  This  "rust"  is  made  according  to  the  following 
formula : 

1  part  flour  of  sulphur. 
1  part  sal-ammoniac. 
98  parts  iron  borings  (free  from  grease). 

This  mixture  is  made  the  consistency  of  cement,  using 
water  to  mix  thoroughly  and  bring  all  parts  into  contact 
with  each  other.  When  it  hardens,  it  becomes  very  hard 
and  makes  a  tight  joint  which  overcomes  the  objections  to 
lead  and  oakum  joints. 

WROUGHT-IRON  AND  STEEL  PIPE 

This  pipe  comes  in  about  18-foot  lengths  and  fittings  of 
the  following  makes  and  shapes,  and  their  use  is  fully 
explained.  The  lengths  of  pipe  come  with  a  thread  on  each 
end  and  a  coupling  screwed  on  one  end.  The  lengths  come 
in  bundles  up  to  1J^ -inches  and  in  single  lengths  over  that 
size.  Screw  pipe  fittings,  it  will  be  noted,  are  called  by  a 
different  name  than  cast-iron  ones.  The  fittings  in  com- 
mon use  today  are  the  90  degree  ell,  45,  22,  and  16%.  The 

7 


98 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Y  and  T  Y,  tucker  fittings,  and  inverted  Ys  are  used  in 
practically  the  same  way  as  the  cast-iron  fittings.     The  90 


UNION  "T"(Fem«le)          UNION  "T"(  Male)          UNION  "ELL" (Male) 
Malleable    Iron 


ELBOW 


INCREASER 


TEE 


REDUCER 


CAP 
MALLEABLE    FITTINGS 


STREET  "ELL" 


L/ 


"S'TRAP 


CROSS  CAST-IRON  UY"    OFFSET 

CAST-IRON    SCREW  FITTINGS 
FIG.  54. 


degree  ell,  45,  22,  and  16%  are  used  to  change  the  run  of  pipe 
that  many  degrees.     All  90  degree  fittings,  ells,  and  Ts  are 


SOIL  AND  WASTE  PIPES  AND  VENTS  99 

tapped  to  give  the  pipe  a  pitch  of  J4  inch  to  the  foot.  It 
is  better  to  use  two  45  ells  to  make  a  90  bend  when  it  is 
possible. 

Inverted  Y. — The  inverted  Y  is  used  in  venting  to  good 
advantage.  The  use  of  these  fittings  is  illustrated  in  the 
sketches. 

Waste  Pipes. — Waste  pipes  are  the  pipes  that  run  to  or 
convey  the  discharge  of  waste  matter  to  the  house  drain, 
from  wash  trays,  baths,  lavatories,  sinks,  and  showers. 

The  usual  size  of  waste  pipes  is  2  inches.  Waste  pipes 
are  made  of  the  same  material  as  soil  pipe.  Lead  and  brass 
pipe  are  also  in  common  use.  All  exposed  waste  pipes  in 
bath  and  toilet  rooms  are  brass,  nickel-plated.  The  waste 
pipes  under  kitchen  sinks  and  wash  trays  are  either  lead  or 
plain  heavy  brass.  All  waste  pipes  are  run  with  a  pitch 
towards  the  house  trap  and  should  be  properly  vented  as 
explained  under  venting.  The  pipes  should  be  easy  of  ac- 
cess, with  clean-outs  in  convenient  places.  The  waste 
pipes  under  a  tile  or  cement  floor  should  be  covered  with 
waterproof  paper  and  a  metal  V-shaped  shield  over  the 
entire  length.  If  the  waste  pipes  are  over  a  decorated 
ceiling  they  should  be  in  a  copper-lined  or  lead-lined  box. 
This  box  should  have  a  tell-tale  pipe  running  to  the  open 
cellar  with  the  end  of  the  tell-tale  pipe  left  open.  If  waste 
pipes  are  to  take  the  discharge  from  sinks  in  which  chemicals 
are  thrown,  either  chemical  lead  or  terra-cotta  pipe  should 
be  used.  If  terra-cotta  is  used,  it  should  have  at  least 
6  inches  reinforced  concrete  around  it  and  the  joints  of  pipe 
made  of  keisilgar. 

SIZE  OF  WASTE  PIPES 

Urinals 2  inches 

Kitchen  sink 2  inches 

Slop  sink 3  inches 

Receptacles 1^  inches 

Bath  tubs 1^  inches 

Lavatories 1^  or  1>£  inches 

Wash  trays 2  inches 


100 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Tell-tale  Pipe. — The  tell-tale  pipe  is  a  small  pipe  that 
extends  from  the  trough,  pan,  or  box  that  is  under  a  line  of 
pipe  or  fixtures  to  the  open  cellar.  When  water  is  seen 
running  out  of  this  pipe,  it  shows  that  a  leak  exists  some- 
where in  the  line  of  pipe  that  is  in  the  box  or  trough.  The 
use  of  this  pipe  saves  the  destruction  of  walls  and  ceilings. 

VENTS 

Vents  are  the  most  important  pipes  in  the  plumbing 
system.  Modern  plumbing  successfully  attempts  to  make 
living  in  crowded  and  thickly  populated  districts,  as  well 


Above 
Roof* 


Roof 


INTO  HOUSE 
DRAIN 


INTO  HOUSE- 
DRAIN 

CLEAN-OUT 


FIG.  55. — Circuit  vent. 


as  in  isolated  buildings,  free  from  all  unpleasant  odors  and 
annoyances.  This  could  not  be  accomplished  without  the 
use  of  vents.  Vents  relieve  all  pressure  in  the  system  by 
furnishing  an  outlet  for  the  air  that  is  displaced  by  the  waste 
discharged  from  the  fixtures.  Another  of  its  functions  is 


SOIL  AND  WASTE  P1FB&ANQ  \yENTFt  ;  -,  ,  :    101 

to  supply  air  when  syphonic  action  starts,  thereby  stopping 
the  action  that  would  break  the  seal  of  the  trap  under 
fixtures.  The  pipe  extending  from  top  fixture  connection, 
up  to  and  through  the  roof,  is  called  the  ventilation  pipe. 
All  vents  that  do  not  pass  directly  through  the  roof  termi- 
nate in  this  ventilation  pipe. 

To  explain  the  use  of  vents,  we  might  well  start  in  the 
basement  of  a  dwelling  house.  Suppose  there  is  a  set  of 
wash  trays  in  the  laundry;  the  2-inch  trap  of  these  trays 
should  have  a  IJ/^-inch  vent  pipe 
leading  from  the  crown  of  the 
trap  up  along  side  of  the  stack. 
On  the  first  floor  a  IJ^-inch  pipe 
from  the  crown  of  the  kitchen  ^.••TRAQS.. 

sink  trap  will  lead  into  it.     Here         J-~A — 


the  pipe  should  be  increased  to  2 

inches.     On  the  second  floor  the 

lK-inch  pipes  leading  from  the  FlG  56._Loop  vent. 

lavatory  and  bath  traps  come 

into  it.     The  vent  stack  now  extends  up  into  the  attic  and 

connects  with  the  ventilation  pipe.     In  a  general  way,  the 

above  is  an  example  of  venting.     The  old  method  of  venting 

was  very  complicated  and  is  almost  beyond  describing 

with  the  pen. 

In  common  use  today,  there  are  several  kinds  of  venting, 
namely:  circuit  and  loop  venting,  crown  venting,  and  con- 
tinuous venting.  The  circuit  venting,  Fig.  55,  is  used  in 
connection  with  the  installation  of  closets.  Take  a  row  of 
toilets  in  which  the  waste  connection  of  each  closet  dis- 
charges into  a  Y-branch,  and  there  will  be  a  series  of 
Y-branches.  One  end  of  this  series  of  branches  discharges 
into  the  main  stack  while  the  other  end  continues  and  turns 
up  at  least  to  the  height  of  the  top  of  the  closet  and  then 
enters  the  main  vent  stack.  When  this  main  vent  runs 
up  along  side  of  the  main  stack  and  forces  the  vent  pipe  con- 


102,  1 1/*  £  j       ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

nected  to  the  series  of  Y-branches  to  travel  back,  it  is 
called  a  loop  vent.  This  type  of  vent  supplies  air  to  the 
complete  line  of  toilets  and  is.  very  efficient. 

Continuous  venting,  Figs.  57  and  58,  applies  more  to 
fixtures  other  than  toilets.     A  P-trap  is  used  and  enters  a  T 


Through  Roof 


Through  Roof 


To  Sewer-* 

FIG.  57. — Continuous  vent. 


FIG.  58. 


in  the  stack.  The  lower  part  of  the  T  acts  as  and  connects 
with  the  waste  pipe  while  the  upper  half  is  and  connects 
with  the  vent  pipe.  A  study  of  the  figures  will  aid  the 
reader  to  understand  thoroughly  the  above  explanations. 
In  continuous  venting  the  waste  of  the  lowest  fixture  is  dis- 
charged into  the  vent  pipe  and  extended  to  the  main  waste 


SOIL  AND  WASTE  PIPES  AND  VENTS  103 

stack  where  it  is  connected.  This  is  done  to  allow  any 
rust  scales  that  occasionally  drop  down  the  vent  pipe,  and 
render  it  unfit  to  perform  its  duty,  to  be  washed  away  into 
the  sewer. 

Crown  venting,  Fig.  59,  is  as  its  name  implies,  a  vent  that 
is  taken  from  the  crown  of  the  trap,  thence  into  the  main 
vent. 

Each  one  of  these  methods  of  venting  is  used  and  con- 
sidered good  practice,  provided  it  is  properly  installed  and 
correctly  connected  with  the  use  of  proper  fittings. 


VENT 


1 

FIG.  59. — Crown  venting. 

Things  to  Remember. — 

First,  venting  is  to  prevent  traps  from  syphoning. 
Second,  also  to  allow  free  passage  of  air. 
Third,  circuit  vent — loop  vent. 
Fourth,  continuous  venting. 
Fifth,  crown  venting. 

Sixth,  ventilation  pipe  extends  from  the  top  of  fixture 
through  roof. 


CHAPTER  XI 

HOUSE   TRAPS,  FRESH-AIR  CONNECTIONS,  DRUM  TRAPS, 
AND  NON-SYPHONING  TRAPS 

The  house  trap  is  a  deep  seal  trap  placed  inside  the  founda- 
tion wall,  and  intersects  the  house  drain  and  house  sewer. 
The  trap  is  placed  at  this  point  for  a  number  of  reasons : 
first,  to  keep  sewer  gases  from  entering  the  pipes  in  the 
house;  second,  this  location  is  where  the  house  drain  ends. 
This  trap  should  have  two  clean-outs,  one  on  each  side  of 
the  seal.  The  clean-outs  should  be  of  extra  heavy  cast- 
iron  body  with  a  heavy  brass  screw  cap.  The  cap  should 
have  a  square  nut  for  a  wrench  to  tighten  or  unscrew  the  cap. 
This  cap  should  be  brought  up  flush  with  the  floor.  When  a 
house  trap  is  being  set,  it  is  necessary  to  set  it  perfectly 
level,  otherwise  the  seal  of  the  trap  is  weakened  and  sewer 
gases  can  enter. 

Sometimes  the  trap  is  located  on  the  house  sewer  just 
outside  of  the  foundation  wall.  In  this  case,  a  pit  should 
be  built  large  enough  for  a  workman  to  get  down  to  it  to 
clean  it  out  when  necessary. 

A  mason's  trap  was  formerly  used  to  a  considerable 
extent,  but  is  very  poor  practice  to  use  today  on  modern 
work.  This  trap  was  built  square  of  brick  with  a  center 
partition.  The  brick  soon  became  foul  and  the  trap  would 
be  better  termed  a  small  cesspool  than  a  trap. 

Points  to  Remember  about  House  Traps. — 

First,  should  be  a  running  trap. 
Second,  two  clean-outs. 

104 


FRESH-AIR  CONNECTIONS  105 

Third,  deep  seal,  at  least  2  inches. 
Fourth,  set  level. 
Fifth,  set  inside  foundation  wall. 
Sixth,  accessible  at  all  times. 
Seventh,  same  size  as  house  drain. 
Eighth,  fresh  air  should  connect  with  it. 

FRESH-AIR  CONNECTIONS 

The  term  "fresh-air  inlet"  is,  as  its  name  implies,  an  in- 
let for  fresh  air.  It  is  placed  directly  on  the  house  side  of 
the  main  trap.  The  connections  made  vary  considerably. 
A  few  good  connections  in  common  use  are  explained  below. 

When  the  trap  is  in  place,  one  of  the  clean-outs  can  be 
used  for  the  fresh  air.  If  this  is  done,  a  Y-branch  should 
be  placed  in  the  hub  of  the  clean-out.  The  Y-branch  should 
be  used  for  the  fresh  air  and  the  run  should  be  used  for  a 
clean-out. 

A  Y-fitting  can  be  inserted  directly  back  of  the  trap  and 
the  branch  used  for  the  fresh  air.  An  inverted  Y  makes  a 
good  fitting  to  use  directly  back  of  the  trap.  These 
branches  should  be  taken  off  the  top  of  the  pipe.  The 
branch  taken  off  for  the  fresh-air  inlet  should  not  have  any 
waste  discharge  into  it  and  should  not  be  used  for  a  drain 
pipe  of  any  description. 

The  fresh-air  inlet  should  run  as  directly  as  possible  into 
the  outer  air,  at  least  15  feet  from  any  window.  The  pipes 
terminate  in  a  number  of  different  ways,  some  with  a  return 
bend,  above  the  ground,  some  with  a  cowl  cap,  some  with  a 
strainer.  When  necessary  to  run  pipe  through  the  side- 
walk, a  box  of  brick  is  made  with  a  heavy  brass  strainer 
fitted  level  with  the  sidewalk  into  which  the  pipe  runs.  If 
the  pipe  is  run  into  the  box  on  the  side  a  little  up  from  the 
bottom,  the  possibility  of  becoming  stopped  up  or  filled  up 
is  not  great.  The  fresh-air  inlet  sometimes  terminates 
above  the  roof  of  the  building. 


106 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


Special  care  should  be  given  this  fresh-air  inlet  as  it 
supplies  fresh  air  to  the  entire  system  and  thus  keeps  the 
pipes  in  a  much  better  sanitary  condition. 

Sometimes  when  the  house  drain  is  full  of  sewage,  air  is 
pushed  out  of  the  fresh-air  inlet  and  disagreeable  odors  are 


Au-K>ma+ic  fresh 
Air  Cap 


FIG.  60. — Fresh-air  inlet. 


evident.  This  is  why  it  should  be  located  as  far  as  possible 
from  any  window.  Special  care  should  be  taken  on  the  part 
of  the  plumber  not  to  locate  the  fresh-air  inlet  nearer  than 
15  feet  to  the  fresh-air  intake  of  the  heating  system. 

When  the  pipe  passes  through  the  foundation  wall,  the 
same  care  should  be  exercised  as  with  other  pipes.  That  is, 
if  the  pipe  is  4  inches,  a  sleeve  6  inches  should  be  cut  in  the 
wall  for  the  4-inch  pipe  to  pass  through. 


FRESH-AIR  CONNECTIONS  107 

Points  to  Remember  about  Fresh  Air.— 

First,  never  should  be  smaller  than  4  inches. 

Second,  one  size  smaller  than  trap. 

Third,  location,  directly  back  of  trap. 

Fourth,  leads  to  outer  air. 

F  if  thy  keep  away  from  windows  and  intake  of  heating 
system. 

Sixth,  always  have  end  of  pipe  covered  with  strainer, 
cowl,  or  return  bend. 

Seventh,  make  as  few  bends  as  possible. 

Eighth,  supplies  fresh  air  to  system. 

DRUM  TRAP 

The  use  of  the  drum  trap  is  very  handy  to  the  plumber 
as  well  as  efficient  and  practicable  when  installed.     The 
trap  can  be  purchased  without  any  outlets 
or  inlets,  so  the  plumber  can  put  them  in 
according  to  the  necessary  measurements. 
The  making  of  these  traps  with  lead  is  ex- 
plained in  the  chapter  on  Wiping  Joints. 
The  open  end  has  a  brass  clean-out  screw 
on  it.     When  this  clean-out  screw  comes 
below  the  floor,  another  brass  screw  cap 
and  flange  is  screwed  on  the  floor  above      FlG  61  _ 
the  trap  so  that  the  clean-out  screw  in  the  trap, 

trap  is  easily  accessible. 

These  drum  traps  are  called  bath  traps  as  they  are  used 
mostly  on  bath  wastes.  They  should  never  be  installed 
with  the  clean-out  exposed  to  the  sewer  side  of  the  trap. 
In  the  best  practice,  heavy  brass  drum  traps  are  used. 

NON-SYPHONING  TRAP 

After  years  of  experimenting  to  produce  a  trap  that  would 
not  syphon  without  venting,  we  find  in  use  today  a  large 


108 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


variety  of  non-syphoning  traps.  Traps  that  will  hold  their 
seal  against  all  practical  forms  of  syphonic  action,  or  other 
threatening  features,  have  been  made  and  used  and  serve 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended.  Various  means 
to  prevent  the  breaking  of  the  seal  of  these  traps  are  em- 
ployed. While  some  depend  on  a  ball  or  other  kind  of 
valve,  others  rely  on  partitions  and  deflections  of  various 
kinds.  All  of  these  perform  the  functions  for  which  they 
are  designed,  yet  the  devices  employed  offer  an  excellent 
obstruction  for  the  free  passage  of  waste;  therefore,  in 


FIG.  62. — Flask  trap. 


FIG.  63. — Clean-sweep  trap. 


time,  these  traps  become  inoperative.  It  should  be  borne 
in  mind  that  any  traps  with  a  mechanical  seal  or  an  inside 
partition  are  not  considered  sanitary.  The  inside  partition 
might  wear  out  or  be  destroyed  and  thus  break  the  seal 
without  the  knowledge  of  anyone  and  allow  sewer  gas  to 
enter  the  room.  The  mechanical  device  may  also  be  dis- 
placed or  destroyed,  leaving  the  tr"ap  without  a  seal.  If  the 
trap  were  cleaned  out  often  or  examined  occasionally, 
these  traps  could  be  used  with  a  greater  degree  of  safety. 
Some  of  the  forms  of  non-syphon  traps  in  common  use  are : 


FRESH-AIR  CONNECTIONS 


109 


The  Flask  Trap,  Fig.  62.  This  trap  gets  its  name  from 
its  shape.  There  is  an  inside  wall  upon  which  the  seal 
depends.  This  trap  is  like  the  bag  trap,  only  the  two  inside 
walls  of  the  pipe  are  combined  into  one.  This  wall  should 
be  of  heavy  cast  brass,  free  from  sand  holes. 

Clean  Sweep  Trap,  Fig.  63.  Some  clean  sweep  traps  are 
dependent  upon  an  inside  wall  for  their  seals.  They  are 
made  of  %S,  %S,  and  full  S. 


FIG.  64. — Mechanical- 
seal  trap. 


FIG.  65. — Standard  "S"  trap. 


FIG.  66. — Bag 
trap. 


Sure  Seal  Trap.  The  sure  seal  trap  is  designed  to  be 
non-syphoning.  This  trap  also  has  an  interior  waterway. 
If  this  waterway  leaks,  the  trap  is  unfit  for  use.  If  these 
traps  are  made  as  shown  in  the  second  sketch  with  the  way 
inside  of  a  larger  pipe,  it  can  be  detected  if  the  interior 
wall  leaks. 

Centrifugal  Trap.  The  centrifugal  trap  is  made  similar 
to  the  clean  sweep,  except  that  the  wall  of  the  inlet  pipe  is 
entirely  separate  from  the  body  of  the  trap.  The  inlet 
enters  the  body  of  the  trap  on  a  tangent,  thus  making  the 
trap  self-scouring  which  is  a  good  feature. 


CHAPTER  XII 


PIPE  THREADING 

The  proper  cutting  of  threads  on  pipe  is  overlooked  by 
some  mechanics.  There  are  many  different  kinds  of  dies 
and  different  kinds  of  pipe  to  contend  with.  Steel  pipe 
threads  very  hard  and  the  adjustable  dies  should  be  used 
on  it.  These  dies  cut  more  easily  and  leave  a  cleaner 
thread  than  other  dies  when  used  on  steel  pipe.  When 
threads  are  cut  on  wrought-iron  pipe  the  adjustable  dies 
should  be  used  as  they  cut  a  better  and  cleaner  thread 
than  other  dies.  To  preserve  the  life  of  the  dies  and  the 
quality  of  the  thread,  oil  is  used  freely  while  the  dies  are 
cutting. 

Threads. — The  standard  thread  on  pipe  and  fittings  is  a 
right-handed  thread.  Left  threads  can  be  cut  on  the  pipe 
and  the  fitting  can  be  tapped  with  a  left  thread.  When  a 
fitting  is  tapped  with  a  left  thread  it  is  marked  so.  The 
following  table  gives  the  standard  number  of  threads  that 
a  die  will  or  should  be  allowed  to  cut  on  the  pipe: 


Size 

Length,  inches 

Threads  per  inch 

Threads  per  end 

H 

He 

18 

10.825 

H 

H 

.  14 

10.500 

H 

% 

14 

10.500 

i 

1%Q 

UK 

10.800 

1/4 

1 

UK 

11.500 

iK 

1 

UK 

11.500 

2 

1H 

UK 

12.930 

110 


PIPE  THREADING 


111 


To  acquaint  the  beginner  with  iron  pipe  work,  the  fol- 
lowing exercise  is  given.  In  it  there  are  a  great  many  of 
the  actual  problems  that  come  up  when  the  pipe  is  put  in  on 
a  job.  This  is  the  last  exercise  that  is  required  in  this  book. 
The  sketch  shows  clearly  just  what  the  job  is  and  below  I 
have  gone  over  each  operation  that  is  necessary  to  complete 
the  job. 

': -/Orr- 

T: 


4:Righ+&  Left-Handed  Coupling 
<--Lef+-Ha'nded  Thread 


FIG.  67. 

Materials  Necessary. — Six  feet  of  1-inch  black  pipe; 
four  1-inch  black  ells;  two  1-inch  tee;  one  1-inch  right 
and  left  coupling;  oil. 

Tools  Necessary. — Two  14-inch  pipe  wrenches,  vise, 
pipe  cutters,  stock  and  1-inch  follower  right  and  left  die 
and  reamer. 

The  vise  is  made  secure  on  a  bench  or  post,  care  being 
taken  before  it  is  put  in  place  to  provide  room  enough  to 
swing  the  stocks.  A  length  of  1-inch  pipe  is  put  into  the 
vise  and  the  vise  clamped  around  it.  The  end  of  the  pipe 


112  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

that  is  to  be  threaded  should  stick  out  through  the  vise 
about  9  inches.  If  there  is  a  thread  on  this  end,  the  dies 
should  be  run  over  it  to  make  sure  that  it  is  a  standard 
thread  arid  to  clean  the  threads.  Before  proceeding  further 
with  this  exercise  the  dies  and  stocks  will  be  described  and 
their  use  shown. 

Dies. — A  full  set  of  dies  is  taken.  The  full  set  of  stocks 
and  dies  is  composed  of  right  and  left  dies  from  %  inch  up 
to  1  inch,  with  a  guide  for  each  size,,  also  a  small  wrench 
with  which  to  turn  the  set  screws.  The  dies  come  in  sets, 
two  in  a  set.  These  are  the  Armstrong  patent  that  I  am 
describing.  Take  the  stock  and  the  handles,  and  a  set 
of  1-inch  right  dies  with  the  guides  out  of  the  box.  The 
dies  will  have  marked  on  them  1"  R  (if  1-inch  left  were 
wanted,  the  mark  would  be  1"  L).  The  set  screws  are 
taken  out  of  the  stock  and  the  dies  inserted  in  their  proper 
place.  There  is  a  deep  mark  on  the  edge  of  each  die  and 
under  it  a  letter  S.  This  letter  means  "  standard."  This 
mark  on  the  die  is  set  even  with  a  similar  mark  on  the  stock 
and  when  the  set  screws  are  in  place  and  tightened,  a  stand- 
ard thread  will  be  cut.  There  is  an  adjusting  screw  on  the 
stock  to  make  the  proper  adjustment  on  the  dies. 

Stock. — The  stock  is  taken  and  the  handles  are  put  into 
it.  There  are  two  sets  of  set  screws  on  the  stock,  one  set 
for  holding  the  dies  in  place  and  the  other  set  for  adjusting 
the  dies.  On  the  stock  there  is  a  deep  mark  to  correspond 
with  the  standard  thread  mark  on  the  dies.  On  the 
opposite  side  of  the  stock  there  is  a  place  for  the  follower 
and  a  set  screw  to  hold  it  in  place.  After  the  stocks  have 
been  looked  over  and  examined  thoroughly,  the  1-inch 
right  dies  are  taken  and  inserted.  Then  the  1-inch  fol- 
lower is  put  in  place.  The  tool  is  now  ready  to  cut  a  1-inch 
thread.  Now  take  a  piece  of  1-inch  pipe  at  least  15  inches 
long  and  put  it  in  the  vise,  letting  it  extend  out  from  the  vise 
about  9  inches.  The  stock  is  now  taken  and  the  follower 


PIPE  THREADING  113 

end  is  put  on  the  pipe  first  and  the  dies  brought  up  in  place 
to  cut.  The  end  of  the  pipe  is  allowed  to  enter  in  between 
the  two  dies  so  that  the  teeth  of  each  die  rest  on  the  pipe. 
Now,  holding  the  handles  of  the  stock  about  6  inches  from 
the  body  of  the  stock  and  standing  directly  in  front  of  the 
pipe,  push  and  turn  to  the  right  at  the  same  time  and  the 
dies  will  be  started.  Now  put  some  oil  on  the  dies  and 
turn  the  stock,  taking  hold  of  the  ends  of  the  handles 
and  standing  at  one  side.  The  dies  are  run  up  on  the  pipe 
until  the  pipe  extends  through  the  face  of  the  dies  one 
thread.  Oil  is  put  on  the  pipe  and  the  dies  at  least  twice 
during  the  cutting.  When  the  thread  is  long  enough  the 
stock  is  turned  back  a  little  and  then  forward  a  little  and  the 
loose  chips  are  blown  out  from  between  the  dies  and  pipe. 
If  the  dies  are  set  right,  a  good  clean  standard  thread  will 
have  been  cut.  This  thread  can  now  be  cut  off  with  the 
pipe  cutters. 

Pipe  Cutters. — To  cut  pipe  with  a  one-wheel  pipe  cutter 
is  a  simple  matter.  I  will  not  dwell  at  length  on  the  cutter 
itself.  There  are  one- wheel  and  three- wheel  cutters.  We 
will  use  a  one- wheel  cutter  tool.  This  cutter  is  forced  into 
the  surface  of  the  pipe  with  a  set  screw  having  a  long  tee 
handle.  The  pressure  that  is  brought  to  bear  on  the  pipe 
while  being  cut  is  sufficient  to  cause  a  large  burr  to  form  on 
the  inside  of  the  pipe.  Sometimes  the  pipe  is  completely 
crushed  and  rendered  unfit  for  use.  Therefore  the  user  of 
these  cutters  should  exercise  care  when  cutting  pipe.  The 
pipe  is  put  in  the  vise  and  the  cutters  are  so  put  on  the  pipe 
that  the  pipe  will  be  between  the  two  rollers  and  the  cutter 
wheel,  the  cutter  resting  on  the  mark  that  indicates  the 
point  at  which  the  pipe  is  to  be  cut.  The  handle  is  screwed 
down  and  the  cutters  turned  around  the  pipe;  each  time  the 
cutters  make  a  complete  turn  the  handle  is  screwed  down 
more.  This  procedure  is  continued  until  the  furrow  has 
been  cut  clear  through  the  pipe. 
8 


114  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Cutting  and  Threading  Nipples. — Nipples  are  short 
pieces  of  pipe  threaded  on  each  end.  Pieces  of  pipe  longer 
than  6  inches  are  not  called  nipples.  When  a  nipple  is  so 
short  that  the  threads  cut  on  each  end  meet  in  the  center  of 
the  piece,  the  nipple  is  called  a  "  close  nipple."  When  there 
is  a  space  of  about  Y±  inch  between  the  threads,  it  is  called 
a  " space  or  shoulder"  nipple.  To  cut  and  thread  these 
nipples  a  nipple  chuck  or  nipple  holder  is  necessary. 

Nipple  Holders. — Take  a  piece  of  1-inch  pipe  about  12 
inches  long  and  on  one  end  cut  a  thread  that  is  2  inches 
long.  Take  a  1-inch  coupling  and  screw  it  on  this  end 
until  the  end  of  the  pipe  is  almost  through  the  end  of  the 
coupling.  At  least  four  threads  should  be  allowed  at  this 


I"  Coupling-^ 


12' 


FIG.  68. — Nipple  chuck  and  nipples. 

end  of  the  coupling.  Now  we  have  a  piece  of  pipe  12  inches 
long  having  a  thread  2  inches  long  on  one  end  with  a  coup- 
ling on  the  thread.  This  is  called  a  nipple  holder.  Now,  to 
cut  a  nipple,  cut  a  thread  on  a  piece  of  pipe  and  cut  the 
pipe  off  at  any  desired  length,  say  2  inches.  Put  the  nipple 
holder  in  the  vise  with  the  coupling  out  from  the  vise  about 
8  inches.  Take  the  2-inch  piece  of  pipe  with  a  thread  on 
one  end,  screw  this  thread  into  the  coupling  until  it  touches 
the  pipe  that  has  been  screwed  through  from  the  other  end. 
Now  the  stocks  having  the  1  dies  and  the  follower  in  are 
put  on  the  pipe.  The  follower  will  not  go  over  the  coupling, 


PIPE  THREADING  115 

therefore  take  the  follower  out  of  the  stock.  Now  the 
stock  will  slip  over  the  coupling  and  the  thread  can  be 
cut.  With  this  procedure  a  nipple  of  any  length  can  be 
cut.  There  are  a  number  of  patented  nipple  chucks  on  the 
market,  but  as  they  are  not  always  at  hand  the  above 
method  is  resorted  to  and  serves  every  purpose. 

Long  Screws. — To  cut  a  long  screw  which  comes  in  use 
frequently  on  vent  pipe  work,  a  piece  of  pipe  12  inches  long 
is  taken  and  a  regular  length  thread  is  cut  on  one  end,  and 
a  thread  4  inches  long  is  cut  on  the  other  end.  Then  a 
coupling  is  cut  while  screwed  on  a  pipe,  so  that  a  lock  nut 
about  J^  inch  wide  is  made.  The  description  and  use  of 
these  long  screws  will  come  under  screw  pipe  venting. 

Now  that  the  proper  use  of  the  tools  has  been  explained, 
we  will  proceed  with  the  exercise  according  to  the  sketch. 
With  a  length  of  pipe  in  the  vise  and  the  1-inch  dies  in  the 
stock,  run  over  the  thread  on  the  pipe.  Note  that  all  the 
measurements  are  center  to  center.  Screw  an  elbow  on 
the  pipe  and  measure  off  the  first  length,  which  we  will  take 
as  12  inches  center  to  center.  Place  the  rule  on  the  pipe 
with  one  end  of  it  at  the  center  of  the  opening  of  the  elbow 
just  screwed  on.  Mark  12  inches  off  on  the  pipe.  This 
mark  represents  the  center  of  another  ell.  Now  take 
another  ell  and  hold  the  center  of  one  outlet  on  this  mark. 
It  will  readily  be  seen  that  to  have  the  measurement  come 
right,  the  pipe  must  be  cut  off  at  a  point  where  it  will  make 
up  tight  when  screwed  into  the  ell.  Therefore,  about 
1  inch  will  have  to  be  cut  off,  making  the  pipe  1  inch  shorter 
than  where  it  was  first  marked.  Cut  the  pipe,  and  before 
taking  it  out  of  the  vise  make  a  thread  on  the  pipe  still 
in  the  vise.  After  the  thread  is  cut,  take  the  reamer  and 
ream  out  the  burr  that  is  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe  caused 
by  the  pipe  cutter.  An  elbow  can  be  screwed  on  this  pipe. 
The  next  measurement  is  marked  off  as  explained,  the  pipe 
cut,  then  the  piece  in  the  vise  threaded  and  reamed.  The 


1 16  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

measurements  must  be  accurate  and  the  dies  should  be 
adjusted  to  cut  all  threads  the  same  depth.  When  the 
measurements  are  all  out,  there  should  be  seven  pieces  of 
pipe,  each  piece  having  one  thread.  Now  the  threads  on 
the  other  end  can  be  cut  except  the  12  inch  piece  that  screws 
into  the  right  and  left  coupling.  This  thread  is  a  left- 
handed  thread  and  must  be  cut  with  the  left  dies.  Change 
the  dies  now  to  the  1-inch  left  dies;  turn  the  stock  in  the 
opposite  direction  of  the  right-hand  thread,  and  the  dies 
will  cut  the  left  thread.  The  pipe  and  the  fittings  can  easily 
be  put  together  as  shown  in  the.  sketch  by  following  the 
center  to  center  measurements.  The  right  and  left  coupling 
is  the  only  fitting  that  will  cause  the  beginner  trouble.  A 
right  and  left  coupling  can  be  used  only  when  there  is 
sufficient  give  to  the  pipe,  that  is,  the  two  ends  of  the  pipe 
to  be  coupled  together  are  only  %  inch  apart.  To  get  the 


FIG.  69. — F  reads  center  of  ell  to  end,  C  reads  center  of  ell  to  center 
of  valve,  D  reads  center 'of  valve  to  center  of  T,  E  reads  center  of  T  to 
center  of  ell. 

coupling  in  place  to  start  the  threads,  the  pipe  must  spread 
apart  at  least  2  inches.  If  the  pipe  cannot  be  spread  that 
much,  a  right  and  left  coupling  cannot  be  used.  The  proper 
way  to  make  up  a  right  and  left  coupling  is  as  follows: 

Screw  home  the  coupling  on  the  right  thread.  Mark  with 
a  piece  of  chalk  on  the  coupling  and  the  pipe  showing  a  point 
on  each  where  the  coupling  makes  tight.  Take  off  the 
coupling  and  count  the  turns  and  make  note  of  the  number. 


PIPE  THREADING  117 

Now  do  the  same  on  the  left  thread  and  make  a  note  of  the 
number  of  threads.  If  the  left  thread  has  six  turns  and  the 
right  has  four  and  one-half,  then  to  insure  that  the  left 
thread  will  be  tight  when  the  right  thread  is,  the  coupling 
must  be  put  on  the  left  thread  one  and  one-half  turns  before 
it  is  started  on  the  right  thread.  Now  with  four  and  one- 
half  turns,  the  right  and  the  left  threads  will  both  be  tight. 
A  little  thought  and  practice  will  make  this  connection 
clear.  If  all  the  measurements  in  this  exercise  are  not  cut 
accurately,  the  right  and  left  coupling  will  not  go  together. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
COLD-WATER  SUPPLY.    TEST 

The  supplying  of  cold  water  to  buildings  and  then  piping 
it  to  the  various  fixtures  makes  a  very  interesting  study. 
We  have  gone  over  the  methods  of  laying  and  piping  for 
the  house  service  pipe.  We  will  go  over  the  different  sys- 
tems now  employed  to  supply  the  water,  quickly. 

Underground  Water. — In  thinly  populated  districts  the 
well  is  still  employed  to  supply  water  to  the  building. 
The  water  is  brought  to  the  surface  by  means  of  a  large 
bucket  or  by  means  of  a  pump.  A  well  point  can  be  driven 
into  the  ground  until  water  is  reached  and  then  the  water 
can  be  brought  to  the  surface  by  means  of  a  pump  operated 
by  hand  or  by  power.  The  water  can  b.e  forced  to  a  tank 
that  is  open  and  elevated,  or  forced  into  a  tank  that  is 
closed  and  put  under  pressure.  From  either  tank  the  water 
will  flow  to  any  desired  outlets.  A  windmill  can  be  em- 
ployed to  furnish  power  to  operate  the  pump.  Water 
supply  that  is  received  directly  from  underground  is  by  far 
the  best  to  use.  A  cesspool  or  outhouse  must  not  be  al- 
lowed on  the  premises  with  a  well,  otherwise  the  well  will 
be  contaminated  and  unfit  for  domestic  use.  An  open 
well  is  not  as  sanitary  as  a  driven  well,  as  the  surface  water 
and  leaves,  etc.,  get  into  it  and  decay  and  pollute  the  water, 
and  soon  make  it  unfit  for  domestic  use. 

Streams  and  Brooks. — The  brooks  and  streams  furnish 
a  good  source  of  supply  for  water  to  a  building  or  commu- 
nity of  buildings.  The  writer  recently  worked  on  a  system 
of  piping  that  supplied  15  or  20  buildings.  The  water 

118 


COLD-WATER  SUPPLY  119 

supply  came  from  a  brook  that  was  higher  than  the  houses. 
Each  house  had  a  separate  pipe  leading  down  from  the  brook 
into  a  tank  from  which  the  house  was  piped.  The  owner 
of  the  brook  applied  business  ethics  to  the  privileges  of 
taking  water  from  it.  He  had  a  scale  of  prices,  and  the 
highest-priced  location  was  an  inch  or  so  below  the  bed  of 
the  brook,  the  next  price  was  level  with  the  bottom,  the 
next  cheaper  2  inches  above  the  bottom.  As  the  surface 
was  reached,  the  privilege  cost  less.  In  the  dry  time  of  the 
year  those  at  the  bottom  of  the  brook  always  had  water 
while  those  at  the  top  location  had  to  wait  for  the  water  to 
rise,  and  had  to  do  without  water  during  the  dry  time. 
Where  the  stream  is  on  a  lower  level  than  the  building  a 
hydraulic  ram  can  be  used. 

Rivers  and  Lakes. — Rivers  and  lakes  make  an  abundant 
supply  for  water  systems.  A  sluggish-moving  river  is  bad, 
also  a  river  that  is  used  for  carrying  off  the  sewage  of  a  town. 
Special  provision  is  now  made  for  the  using  of  water  that  is 
polluted.  A  lake  that  is  supplied  by  springs  is  by  far  the 
best  source  of  supply.  The  water  is  pumped  from  the  river 
or  lake  into  a  reservoir  and  then  flows  by  gravity  into  mains 
and  from  the  mains  into  the  buildings.  The  water  should 
always  be  filtered  before  it  is  allowed  to  enter  the  distri- 
buting mains. 

Water  Pressure. — Pressure  at  a  fixture  or  outlet  so  that 
the  water  will  flow  is  generally  obtained  by  the  force  of 
gravity.  When  this  method  is  not  sufficient,  a  pneumatic 
system  is  employed.  This  method  is  employed  to  force  the 
water  to  the  top  floors  or  to  supply  the  whole  building  in 
high  structures.  The  pneumatic  system  requires  a  pump, 
an  air-tight  tank,  and  pipes  to  the  various  outlets.  The 
water  pumped  into  the  air-tight  tank  will  occupy  part  of 
the  space  generally  occupied  by  the  air.  The  air  cannot 
escape  and  is,  therefore,  compressed.  Continued  pump- 
ing will  compress  the  air  until  the  limit  of  the  apparatus  is 


120  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

reached.  If  a  valve  or  faucet  that  is  connected  with  the 
tank  is  opened,  the  air  will  expand  and  force  the  water  out 
of  the  opening.  This  explains  in  a  general  way  the  opera- 
tion of  a  pneumatic  water-supply  system.  Water  can  be 
pumped  into  this  air-tight  tank  from  a  well,  cistern,  river, 
lake,  or  from  the  city  supply  mains. 

Piping. — From  the  service  pipe  on  which  there  has  been 
placed  a  shut-off,  a  line  of  piping,  full  size,  is  run  through 
the  basement,  overhead  to  a  convenient  place,  perhaps  to 
a  partition  in  the  center  of  the  cellar.  The  pipe  is  brought 
down  and  connected  into  the  end  of  a  header.  This  header 
or  banjo  is  made  of  Ts  placed  4  inches  center  to  center. 


^•fiOT  WATER  COLp  wfTER. 

FIG.  70. — "Banjo." 

From  each  T  a  line  of  pipe  is  run  to  each  isolated  fixture 
or  set  of  fixtures  (see  Fig.  70).  A  stop  and  waste  cock  is 
placed  on  each  line  at  such  a  point  that  all  stop  cocks  will 
come  in  a  row  near  the  header.  A  small  pipe  is  run  from 
the  waste  of  each  stop  and  discharged  into  a  larger  pipe 
which .  connects  with  a  sink.  This  way  of  running  pipes 
while  it  is  expensive  makes  a  very  neat  and  good  job.  Each 
stop  cock  has  a  tag  on  it  stating  explicitly  what  it  controls. 
If  the  building  is  a  large  one  a  number  of  these  panelled 
headers  are  used.  A  less  expensive  way  to  run  this  pipe 
is  to  branch  off  from  the  main  at  points  where  the  branch 
pipe  will  be  as  short  as  possible  and  use  as  few  fittings  as 


COLD-WATER  SUPPLY  121 

possible.  Stop  and  waste  cocks  are  then  placed  on  each 
branch  near  the  main. 

All  pipe  must  follow  the  direct  line  of  fitting  with  which 
it  is  connected.  The  line  of  pipe  should  be  perfectly 
straight.  If  it  seems  necessary  to  bend  the  pipe  to  get 
around  an  obstacle,  then  good  judgment  has  not  been  used 
in  placing  the  fitting  into  which  the  pipe  is  screwed.  The 
fitting  should  be  re-located  so  that  the  pipe  can  be  run 
without  bending.  To  have  true  alignment  of  pipes  the 
whole  job  or  section  of  the  job  must  be  drawn  out  on  paper 
first  and  any  obstacles  noted  and  avoided  before  the  piping 
is  cut.  This  not  only  saves  time  but  it  is  also  the  fore- 
runner of  a  good  job.  When  getting  measurements  for 
piping  the  same  rule  or  tape  should  be  used  to  get  out  the 
pipe  as  was  used  to  get  the  measurements. 

The  water  main  and  branches  that  run  through  the 
basement  of  a  building  are  generally  hung  on  the  ceiling. 
Rough  hangers  of  wood,  rope,  or  wire  are  usually  used  to 
hold  the  pipe  in  place  at  first,  then  neat  and  strong  adjust- 
able hangers  are  placed  every  8  feet  apart.  There  are  in 
use  too  many  kinds  of  hangers  to  explain  or  describe  them 
here.  The  essential  point  of  all  good  hangers  is  to  have 
them  strong,  neat,  and  so  made  that  perfect  alignment  of 
the  pipe  can  be  had.  The  hangers  should  be  so  placed  that 
no  strain  will  come  on  the  fitting  or  the  valves.  A  hanger 
should  be  placed  near  each  side  of  unions  so  that  when  the 
union  is  taken  apart  neither  side  of  the  pipe  will  drop  and 
bend.  Hooks  and  straps  should  be  used  to  hold  vertical 
pipes  rigid  and  in  position.  A  vertical  pipe  should  be  so 
held  in  place  that  its  weight  will  come  on  the  hooks  and 
straps  that  hold  it  rather  than  on  the  horizontal  pipe  into 
which  it  connects.  Where  there  are  six  or  eight  horizontal 
lines  of  pipes  close  together,  a  separate  hanger  for  each 
pipe  makes  a  rather  cumbersome  job  and  it  consumes  con- 
siderable time  to  install  them  properly.  A  hanger  having 


122  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

one  support  run  under  all  the  pipes  will  allow  space  for 
proper  alignment  and  adjustment  for  drainage.  Allow- 
ance must  be  made  on  all  lines  of  pipe  for  drainage.  When 
a  building  is  vacant  during  cold  weather,  the  water  is 
drawn  off;  therefore,  the  pipes  should  have  a  pitch  to  cer- 
tain points  where  the  pipes  can  be  opened  and  the  entire 
system  drained  of  water. 

Bonds  of  Pipe. — The  kind  of  pipe  that  is  used  for  cold- 
water  supply  depends  on  and  varies  according  to  the  kind 
of  water,  the  kind  of  earth  through  which  it  runs,  and  the 
construction  of  the  building.  Wrought  iron,  steel,  lead, 
brass,  tin-lined  brass,  are  in  use. 

The  supply  pipe  to  every  fixture  should  have  a  stop  on  it 
directly  under  the  fixture.  This  will  allow  the  water  to  be 
shut  off  for  repairs  to  the  faucet  without  stopping  the  supply 
of  other  fixtures. 

The  making  of  perfect  threads  on  pipe  is  an  important 
matter,  especially  on  water  pipes.  If  the  pipe  and  the  dies 
were  perfect,  and  the  mechanic  used  sufficient  oil  in  cutting, 
and  the  fittings  were  perfectly  tapped  to  correspond  to  the 
dies  used  on  the  pipe,  of  course  a  perfect  union  between  pipe 
and  fitting  would  result  and  the  joint  would  be  found  to  be 
perfect  on  screwing  the  pipe  home.  As  all  the  above  condi- 
tions are  not  found  on  the  job,  threads  are  made  tight  by 
the  use  of  red  or  white  lead  and  oil.  The  lead  is  put  on  the 
thread  and  when  the  thread  is  made  up  the  lead  will  have 
been  forced  into  any  imperfection  that  may  be  in  the  threads 
and  the  joint  will  then  be  water-tight.  White  lead  and  oil 
should  be  used  on  nickel-plated  pipe  as  other  pipe  compounds 
are  too  conspicuous  and  look  badly.  A  pipe  compound 
should  be  used  with  discretion,  for  if  too  much  is  put  on  a 
burr  of  it  will  collect  in  the  bore  of  the  pipe  and  reduce  it 
considerably.  This  is  not  tolerated,  so  only  a  small  amount 
is  used.  Water  pipes  should  be  run  in  accessible  places, 
making  it  possible  to  get  at  them  in  case  of  trouble.  In 


COLD-WATER  SUPPLY  123 

climates  that  have  freezing  weather  water  pipes  should  not 
be  run  in  outside  partitions.  If  it  is  found  absolutely 
necessary  to  do  so,  as  in  the  case  of  buildings  which  have 
no  inside  partitions  on  the  first  floor,  the  pipe  should  be 
properly  covered  and  protected.  The  different  methods 
of  covering  pipes  are  described  in  Chapter  XV. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

HOT- WATER  HEATERS.     INSTANTANEOUS  COIL  AND 

STORAGE  TANKS.     RETURN  CIRCULATION, 

HOT-WATER  LINES  AND  EXPANSION 

The  problem  of  supplying  hot  water  to  plumbing  fixtures 
is  one  that  has  required  years  of  study.  Each  job  today 
demands  considerable  thought  to  make  it  a  perfect  and 
satisfactory  hot-water  system.  We  will  find  installations 
today  where  the  water  is  red  from  rust,  where  there  is 
water  pounding  and  cracking.  There  are  also  jobs  where 
the  fixtures  get  practically  no  hot  water.  As  each  job  or 
individual  building  has  its  own  peculiar  conditions,  they 
must  be  solved  by  the  designer  or  the  mechanic,  using  the 
fundamental  principles  of  hot- water  circulation.  We  must 
first  know  how  much  hot  water  is  to  be  used,  also  the  loca- 
tion of  the  outlets  and  the  construction  of  the  building; 
then  the  size  of  the  pipes  and  the  size  of  the  tanks  and  their 
locations  can  be  settled.  If  the  job  is  a  large  one,  a  pump 
may  be  employed  to  insure  the  proper  circulation.  After 
this  the  pipe  sizes  and  connections  can  be  worked  out.  The 
one  great  enemy  of  hot-water  circulation  is  air.  There- 
fore, no  traps  or  air  pockets  should  ever  appear  in  the  piping 
system.  The  boiler,  as  it  is  often  referred  to,  is  the  hot- 
water  storage  tank.  A  copper  or  iron  tank  holding  suffi- 
cient water  to  supply  all  fixtures,  even  when  every  fixture 
demands  a  supply  at  the  same  time,  is  installed  in  a  con- 
venient place  and  the  heating  arrangement  connected  with 
it.  A  thermostat  can  be  placed  on  the  system  and  the 
temperature  of  the  water  controlled.  According  to  the  size 

124 


HOT-WATER  HEATERS  125 

of  the  building  the  problem  of  furnishing  the  plumbing 
fixtures  with  hot  water  increases. 

Methods  of  Heating  Hot  Water. — There  are  a  number  of 
ways  of  furnishing  hot  water.  Some  of  the  installations 
are  listed  below. 

A  cast-iron  or  brass  water  back  is  placed  on  the  fire  pot 
of  a  stove  or  furnace.  A  separate  stove  with  the  fire  pot 
and  water  jacket  is  used.  A  coil  of  steam  pipe  is  placed 
inside  a  hot- water  boiler  or  tank.  Gas  coil  heaters  are 
connected  with  hot  water  storage  tank,  also  gas  coil  in- 
stantaneous heaters  are  connected  with  the  piping  direct. 

Combinations  of  the  above  systems  are  in  use  and  serve 
the  purpose  for  which  they  are  intended.  For  instance, 
the  tank  can  be  connected  with  a  coal  range  and  a  gas  coil 
heater,  heat  being  furnished  by  the  range  alone  or  the  coil 
heater  alone,  or  both  can  be  used  at  the  same  time.  This 
combination  can  be  connected  with  the  furnace  in  the  cel- 
lar, and  during  the  winter  months,  when  the  furnac'e  is  in 
use,  the  water  can  be  heated  by  the  furnace  coil.  In  warm 
weather,  when  the  furnace  is  out,  the  range  can  supply  the 
necessary  heat.  In  hot  weather  the  coil  gas  heater  can 
supply  the  heat. 

Connections  of  Tank  and  Heating  Apparatus. — The  ordi- 
nary house  boiler  or  hot-water  storage  tank  has  four  con- 
nections, two  on  top,  one  on  the  side,  and  one  on  the  bottom. 
The  top  connections  are  used  for  the  entrance  of  cold  water 
into  the  tank  and  for  the  supply  of  hot  water  to  the  fix- 
tures (see  Fig.  71) .  The  cold-water  inlet  has  a  tube  extend- 
ing into  the  tank  below  the  side  connection.  This  tube  has 
a  small  hole  filed  in  it  about  6  inches  from  the  top.  This 
hole  is  to  break  any  syphonic  action  that  may  occur  at  any 
time.  The  side  connection  is  for  the  connection  of  the  pipe 
coming  from  the  top  of  the  water  back.  The  bottom  open- 
ing in  the  tank  is  for  the  connection  of  the  pipe  coming  from 
the  lower  water  back  connection,  also  for  draining  the 


126 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


boiler.  The  circulation  of  the  water  can  be  followed  thus: 
cold  water  enters  the  boiler  in  the  tube  and  discharges 
into  the  boiler  below  the  side  connection.  From  here  it 
flows  out  of  the  bottom  connection  into  the  water  back, 
through  the  upper  connection  into  the  boiler,  through  the 
side  opening,  then  to  the  top  of  the  boiler  and  out  to  the 
fixtures  through  the  fixture  supply  opening. 


VALVE 


'ENTIN— 
TUBE 

— 

3 

STORAGE 

TANK 

FILLING-- 
TUBE 

•*| 

(US 

SUPPLY 

•7W 
V; 

AT 

I 

3 

-  •- 

COIL 
1EATER 

2 COLD  WATER 
=3  HOT  WATER 


GAS 
'SUPPLY 

KTHEPMO.- 
VALVE 


FIG.  71. — Storage  tank,  and  coil  heater  with  thermostatic  control  valve. 

Fig.  69  shows  a  thermostatic  control  valve  attached  to 
the  bottom  of  a  heater  coil,  and  at  the  side  of  storage  tank. 
The  best  arrangement  is  at  the  bottom,  for  it  does  not 
shut  off  the  gas  supply  until  the  boiler  is  full  of  hot  water. 

Connecting  Tank  and  Coil  Gas  Heater. — The  boiler  and 
the  coil  gas  heater  have  a  different  connection.  The 
bottom  of  the  tank  and  the  bottom  of  the  heater  are  con- 
nected. The  top  of  the  heater  and  the  top  of  the  boiler 


HOT-WATER  HEATERS 


127 


are  connected.  The  accompanying  sketch  shows  how  this 
connection  is  made.  If  the  tee  on  the  top  of  the  boiler 
into  which  the  gas-heater  connection  is  made  is  not  the 
first  fitting  and  placed  as  close  to  the  outlet  as  possible, 
the  water  will  not  circulate  freely  into  the  boiler.  This 
connection  according  to  the  drawing  should  be  studied 
and  memorized. 

Instantaneous  Gas-heater  Connections. — An  instan- 
taneous gas  heater  is  placed  in  the  basement.  The  copper 
coil  in  it  is  connected  at  the  bottom  with  the  cold-water 


FIG.  72. — Instantaneous    gas    heater.     Showing    circulation    heater    or 

booster. 

supply  and  the  top  outlet  of  the  coil  is  connected  with  the 
hot-water  system  of  piping.  There  is  no  need  of  a  storage 
tank  with  this  heater.  When  a  faucet  is  opened  in  any  part 
of  the  hot-water  piping  system,  the  water  passing  through 
the  water  valve  at  the  heater  causes  the  gas  valve  to  open 
so  that  the  whole  set  of  burners  in  the  heater  is  supplied 
with  gas,  and  the  burners  are  lighted  from  a  pilot  light. 
When  the  faucet  is  closed,  the  gas  supply  is  shut  off  and 
the  burners  are  put  out.  The  pilot  is  lighted  all  the  time. 


128  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Space  will  not  permit  going  over  these  connections  in  detail. 
It  is  a  large  field  and  requires  considerable  thought. 

Safety  and  Check  Valves. — When  a  meter  is  used  on  a 
water  system,  the  water  company  demands  that  a  check 
valve  be  placed  on  the  hot-water  system  to  prevent  the 
hot  water  from  being  forced  back  into  the  meter  in  case  the 
pressure  got  strong  enough  in  the  boiler.  If  a  check  valve 
is  used  for  this  purpose,  or  for  any  other  purpose,  a  safety 
valve  must  be  placed  on  the  boiler  piping  system  to  relieve 
any  excessive  pressure  that  may  be  caused  by  having  the 
check  valve  in  use.  There  is  today,  with  meters  of  modern 
type,  no  reason  to  use  a  check  valve  or  a  safety  valve.  If 
an  excessive  pressure  is  obtained  in  the  boiler,  it  is  relieved 
in  the  water  main. 

When  water  is  heated,  it  expands.  If  the  heat  becomes 
more  intense  and  steam  is  formed,  the  expansion  is  much 
greater,  and  some  means  must  be  provided  to  allow  for  it. 
This  expansion  can  be  allowed  to  relieve  itself  in  the  water 
main  as  explained  above.  When  a  check  valve  is  placed 
on  the  piping,  this  means  of  escape  is  shut  off  and  a  safety 
valve  must  be  employed.  Without  these  reliefs,  the  pres- 
sure would  be  so  great  that  an  explosion  would  result. 
When  steel  pipe  and  steel  boilers  are  used  for  storage  tanks 
and  connections,  the  pipe  and  tank  will  shortly  start  to 
rust  and  parts  of  the  piping  are  stopped  up  with  rust 
scales.  The  water  also  becomes  red  with  rust  when  the 
water  becomes  hot  enough  to  circulate.  When  the  pipes 
are  stopped  up,  steam  is  formed  and  a  snapping  and  crack- 
ing sound  is  heard.  To  avoid  these  conditions,  the  piping 
should  be  of  brass  or  lead  and  the  storage  tank  should  be 
of  copper.  The  installation  cost  of  brass  and  copper  is 
greater  than  steel,  but  they  will  not  have  to  be  replaced  in 
two  or  three  years,  as  is  the  case  with  other  material.  A 
valve  should  be  placed  on  the  cold-water  supply  to  control 
the  entire  hot- water  piping  system.  A  pipe  with  a  stop  cock 


HOT-WATER  HEATERS 


129 


should  be  placed  underneath  the  boiler  and  should  extend 
into  a  sink  in  the  basement  so  that  the  boiler  can  be  drained 
at  any  time  for  cleaning  or  repairs. 

Connecting  with  Fixtures. — To  have  all  fixtures  properly 
supplied  with  hot  water  it  is  necessary  to  run  what  is  termed 
a  circulating  pipe.  This  circulating  pipe  is  a  circuit  of 
pipe  extending  from  the  top  of  the  boiler  to  the  vicinity  of 
the  fixtures  and  then  returning  to  the  boiler  and  connecting 


4, 90°  El  Is 

FIG.  73. — Expansion 
loop.     Four  90°  ells. 


5,90°Ells 


FIG.  74. — Expansion 
loop.    Five  90°  ells. 


6,90°EHs 


FIG.  75. — Expansion 
loop.     Six  90°  ells. 


into  the  pipe  leading  out  of  the  bottom  of  the  boiler.  From 
this  circuit  all  branches  are  taken  to  supply  all  fixtures 
requiring  hot  water.  This  circulating  pipe  has  hot  water 
circulating  through  it  all  the  time.  Therefore  the  fixtures 
are  supplied  with  hot  water  very  quickly  The  circulating 
pipe  and  its  branches  are  run  without  any  traps  or  air 
pockets. 

When  running  the  piping,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
not  only  does  the  water  expand  when  heated,  but  the  pipe 
expands  also.  Therefore  due  allowance  must  be  made  for 


130  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

this  expansion.  The  long  risers  should  have  an  expansion 
loop  as  shown  in  Figs.  73,  74  and  75.  There  are  installed  on 
some  jobs  what  is  known  as  an  expansion  joint.  This  will 
allow  for  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  pipe.  The 
writer's  experience  with  these  joints  has  not  been  very 
satisfactory.  After  a  while  these  joints  begin  to  leak  and 
they  must  have  attention  which  in  some  cases  is  rather  ex- 
pensive. An  expansion  loop  as  shown  in  the  sketch,  made 
with  elbows,  will  prove  satisfactory.  If  the  threads  on  the 
fittings  and  pipe  are  good,  no  leak  will  appear  on  this  joint. 
All  gas  heaters  must  be  connected  with  a  flue  to  carry 
off  the  products  of  combustion. 


CHAPTER  XV 

INSULATION    OF    PIPING    TO    ELIMINATE    CONDUCTION, 
RADIATION,  FREEZING,  AND  NOISE 

Pipe  Covering. — Pipe  covering  is  another  important 
branch  of  plumbing.  A  few  years  ago  heating  pipes  were 
the  only  pipes  that  it  was  thought  necessary  to  cover. 
The  ever-increasing  demands  made  by  the  public  keep  the 
wideawake  plumber  continually  solving  problems.  The 
water  running  down  a  waste  pipe,  for  instance,  will  annoy 
some  people,  and  provision  must  be  made  to  avoid  this 
noise  or  to  silence  it.  This  is  one  of  the  many  problems 
that  the  plumber  must  solve  by  the  use  of  pipe  covering. 

Pipes  that  Need  Covering. — First  of  all,  the  covering 
must  be  put  on  properly  to  be  of  high  service.  Hot-water 
circulating  pipes  need  covering  to  reduce  the  amount  of 
heat  loss.  If  the  pipes  and  the  tank  are  not  covered,  con- 
siderable more  fuel  will  be  needed  to  supply  the  necessary 
amount  of  hot  water  than  if  the  pipes  and  tank  were  covered 
with  a  good  covering.  Cold-water  pipes  need  covering  in 
places  to  keep  them  from  freezing.  They  also  need  covering 
under  some  conditions  to  keep  them  from  sweating.  They 
are  covered  also  to  prevent  the  material  which  surrounds 
them  from  coming  into  direct  contact  with  the  pipe. 
Waste  pipes  need  covering  to  prevent  them  from  freezing 
and  to  silence  the  noise  caused  by  the  rush  of  water  through 
them.  Ice-water  pipes  are  covered  to  prevent  the  water 
from  rising  in  temperature  and  to  prevent  any  condensa- 
tion forming  on  the  pipe.  There  is  need  for  such  a  variety 

131 


132  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

of  covering  that  I  have  listed  below  some  of  them  and  the 
methods  employed  for  putting  them  on  the  pipe. 

Magnesia,  asbestos  air  cell,  molded  asbestos,  wool  felt, 
waterproof  paper  and  wool  felt,  cork,  hair  felt.'  These 
coverings  come  in  the  form  of  pipe  covering  with  a  cloth 
jacket.  They  also  come  in  the  shape  of  fittings  as  well  as 
in  blocks  and  rolls  of  paper,  and  in  powdered  form.  Any 
thickness  that  is  desired  may  be  had.  The  pipe  covering 
is  readily  put  on  the  pipe.  The  cloth  jacket  is  pulled  back 
a  short  distance  and  the  covering  will  open  like  a  book. 
It  can  then  be  clamped  on  the  pipe  and  the  jacket  pulled 
back  and  pasted  into  place.  Brass  bands,  1  inch  wide, 
come  with  the  pipe  covering.  These  are  put  on  and  the 
pipe  covering  is  then  held  securely  in  place.  Practically 
all  the  coverings  are  applied  in  this  manner  and  are  made  up 
in  3-foot  lengths  to  fit  any  size  pipe.  To  cover  the  fittings 
and  valves,  the  same  kind  of  sectional  covering  can  be 
obtained  and  applied  in  the  same  manner  as  the  pipe 
covering.  Plastic  covering  is  often  applied  to  the  fittings 
and  molded  into  the  shape  of  the  fitting.  The  plastic 
covering  comes  in  bags  and  is  dry.  It  is  mixed  with  warm 
water  to  the  consistency  of  thick  cement  and  applied  with  a 
trowel.  When  the  covering  is  put  on  the  pipes  and  fittings, 
it  should  be  done  thoroughly  to  get  satisfactory  results. 
Each  section  of  the  covering  has  on  one  end  an  extra  length 
of  the  jacket.  This  is  to  allow  a  lap  over  on  the  next  sec- 
tion to  make  a  tight  joint.  If  the  sections  need  fitting,  a 
saw  can  be  used  and  the  covering  cut  to  any  desired  length. 

Magnesia  covering  is  employed  mostly  on  steam  pipes, 
especially  high-pressure.  This  material  can  be  had  in  the 
shape  of  pipe  covering,  in  blocks,  or  cement. 

Asbestos  air  cell  covering  is  employed  to  cover  hot- water 
circulating  pipes.  It  is  constructed  of  corrugated  asbestos 
paper.  This  material  is  manufactured  in  the  sectional  pipe 
covering  or  in  corrugated  paper  form. 


INSULATION  OF  PIPING  133 

Molded  asbestos  covering  is  also  used  on  hot-water  pipes, 
and  is  manufactured  in  pipe  covering  or  in  blocks. 

Wool  felt  covering  is  used  mostly  on  hot-water  pipes  and 
makes  one  of  the  best  coverings.  It  is  lined  with  asbestos 
paper  and  covered  with  a  cloth  jacket. 

Waterproof  paper  and  wool  felt  is  used  on  cold-water 
pipes  and  is  made  in  3-foot  lengths.  The  covering  is  lined 
with  waterproof  paper  and  covered  with  a  cloth  jacket. 

Cork. — A  heavy  cork  covering  is  one  of  the  best  coverings 
for  ice- water  pipes,  and  a  light  cork  covering  is  used  for  cold- 
water  pipes.  This  covering  comes  in  sections  as  other 
coverings,  also  in  blocks  and  sheets. 

Hair  felt  is  used  to  prevent  pipes  from  freezing.  It 
comes  in  bales  containing  150  to  300  square  feet  of  various 
thicknesses. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


"DURHAM"  OR  "SCREW  PIPE"  WORK.     PIPE  AND 
FITTINGS 

"Durham"  or  "screw  pipe"  work  is  the  name  used  to  de- 
note that  the  job  is  installed  by  the  use  of  wrought-iron  or 
steel  screw  pipe.  We  speak  of  a  "cast-iron  job"  meaning 
that  cast-iron  pipe  was  used  for  the  piping.  A  completely 
different  method  of  work  is  used  when  screw  pipe  is  em- 
ployed for  the  wastes  and  vents.  When  screw  pipe  is  to 
be  used  or  considered  for  use,  it  is  well  to  know  something 
concerning  the  various  makes  of  screw  pipe.  Nothing  but 
galvanized  pipe  is  ever  used.  The  value  of  steel  screw  pipe 
and  wrought-iron  screw  pipe  should  be  studied,  and  every 
person  interested  should,  if  possible,  understand  how  these 
different  pipes  are  made  and  how  the  material  of  which  they 
are  composed  is  made.  In  some  places  one  pipe  is  better 
than  another  and  a  study  of  their  make-up  would  enlighten 
the  user  and  allow  him  to  use  the  best  for  his  peculiar  condi- 
tions. The  maker's  name  should  always  be  on  the  pipe. 
The  following  table  shows  the  sizes,  weights,  and  thicknesses 
of  screw  pipe : 


Size 

Thickness 

No.  threads 
per  inch 

Size 

Thickness 

No.  threads 
per  inch 

iH 

0.140 

11H 

3K 

0.226 

8 

m 

0.145 

11^ 

4 

0.237 

8 

2 

0.154 

Ufc 

5 

0.259 

8 

2H 

0.204 

8 

6 

0.280 

8 

3 

0.217 

8 

134 


PIPE  AND  FITTINGS  135 

Screw  pipe  work  came  into  common  use  with  the  advance 
of  modern  steel  structures.  Some  difficulty  had  been  ex- 
perienced in  getting  the  cast-iron  pipe  joints  tight  and  to 
keep  the  pipe  so  anchored  that  it  would  not  crack.  The 
screw  pipe  was  found  to  answer  all  of  the  requirements  of 
modern  structures  and  therefore  has  been  used  extensively. 
The  life  of  screw  pipe  is  not  as  long  as  extra  heavy  cast- 
iron  pipe.  This  is  the  only  serious  objection  to  screw  pipe, 
which  must  be  renewed  after  a  term  of  years,  while  extra 
heavy  cast  iron  lasts  indefinitely.  Screw  pipe  is  never  used 
underground.  When  piping  is  required  underground,  extra 
heavy  cast-iron  pipe  is  used. 

PIPING 

The  pipe  used  in  Durham  work  is  galvanized  extra  heavy, 
or  standard  wrought-iron,  or  steel  pipe.  It  is  almost  im- 
possible to  recognize  wrought-iron  from  steel  pipe  without 
the  aid  of  a  chemical  or  a  magnifying  glass.  To  test  the 
pipe  to  distinguish  its  base,  take  a  sharp  file  and  file  through 
the  surface  of  the  pipe  that  is  to  be  tested.  If  the  pipe  is 
steel,  under  a  magnifying  glass  the  texture  of  the  filed  sur- 
face will  appear  to  be  smooth  and  have  small  irregular- 
shaped  grains,  and  there  will  also  be  an  appearance  of 
compactness.  If  the  pipe  is  iron,  the  texture  will  have  the 
appearance  of  being  ragged  and  will  show  streaks  of  slag 
or  black.  When  screw  pipe  is  cut  there  is  always  left  a 
large  burr  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe.  This  burr  greatly 
reduces  the  bore  of  the  pipe  and  is  a  source  of  stoppage  in 
waste  pipes.  After  the  pipe  is  cut  this  burr  should  be 
reamed  out  thoroughly.  One  of  the  strong  points  of  screw 
pipe  is  the  strength  of  each  joint.  Care  should  therefore 
be  taken  to  see  that  perfect  threads  are  cut  on  the  pipe  and 
that  the  threads  of  the  fittings  are  perfect.  The  dies  should 
be  set  right  and  not  varied  on  each  joint.  There  should  be 


136  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

plenty  of  oil  used  when  threads  are  cut  so  that  the  thread 
will  be  clean  and  sharp.  The  follower  or  guide  on  stocks 
should  be  the  same  size  as  the  pipe  that  is  being  threaded, 
otherwise  a  crooked  thread  will  result.  If  a  pipe-threading 
machine  is  used,  the  pipe  is  set  squarely  between  the  jaws 
of  the  vise  that  holds  the  pipe  in  place.  When  cutting 
a  thread  on  a  long  length  of  pipe,  the  end  sticking  out  from 
the  machine  must  be  supported  firmly  so  that  no  strain 
will  come  on  the  machine  as  the  pipe  turns.  It  is  neces- 
sary to  cut  crooked  threads  sometimes  on  the  pipe  to  allow 
the  pipe  pitch  for  drainage  or  to  bring  the  pipe  into  align- 
ment where  fitting  would  take  up  too  much  room.  To  cut 
a  crooked  thread  on  a  piece  of  pipe,  simply  leave  the  follower 
out  of  the  stock  or  put  in  the  size  larger.  The  dies  not  hav- 
ing a  guide  will  cut  a  crooked  thread.  Piping  should  be 
run  with  as  few  threads  as  possible.  With  a  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  and  the  intelligent  use  of  fittings,  a  minimum  num- 
ber of  threads  will  result. 

The  pipes  in  a  building  are  run  in  compact  parallel  lines 
in  chases  designed  especially  for  them.  The  tendency  is  to 
confine  the  pipes  to  certain  localities  as  much  as  possible. 
This  makes  a  very  neat  job  and  in  case  repairs  are  needed, 
the  work  and  trouble  incurred  will  be  confined  to  one  section. 

FITTINGS 

The  fittings  used  in  screw  pipe  work  are  cast-iron  recess 
type  (see  Fig.  54).  The  fittings  are  so  made  that  the  inside 
bores  of  the  pipe  and  the  fittings  come  in  direct  line  with 
each  other,  thus  making  a  smooth  inside  surface  at  all  bends. 
The  fittings  are  all  heavily  galvanized.  All  fittings  should  be 
examined  on  the  inside  for  any  lumps  of  metal  of  sufficient 
size  to  catch  solid  waste  matter,  and  these  must  be  removed 
or  the  fitting  discarded.  All  90°  bends,  whether  Ts  or 
elbows,  are  tapped  to  give  the  pipe  that  connects  with  them 


PIPE  AND  FITTINGS  137 

a  pitch  of  at  least  Y±  inch  to  the  foot.  Except  where 
obligatory,  90°  fittings  should  not  be  used.  To  make  a 
bend  of  90°  a  Y-branch,  a  nipple  and  a  45°  bend  should  be 
used,  or  two  45°  bends  will  make  a  long  easy  sweep  of  the 
drainage  pipes  and  reduce  the  possibility  of  stoppage. 

Y-branches  are  inserted  every  30  feet  at  least  to  allow  for 
a  clean-out  which  can  be  placed  in  the  branch  of  the  fitting. 
When  a  clean-out  is  placed  an  iron  plug  should  not  be  used. 
These  plugs  are  not  removed  very  often  and  an  iron  plug 
will  rust  in  and  be  almost  impossible  to  get  out.  Brass 
clean-out  plugs  are  used  and  are  easily  taken  out. 

At  times  it  is  necessary  to  connect  cast  iron  and  wrought 
iron,  or  in  a  line  where  a  union  could  be  used  if  the  pipe  were 
not  a  waste  pipe,  a  tucker  fitting  is  used.  This  fitting  is 
threaded  on  one  end  and  has  a  socket,  on  the  other  to  allow 
for  caulking.  To  get  a  good  idea  of  all  the  fittings  in  general 
use,  the  reader  should  get  a  catalogue  from  one  of  the  fitting 
manufacturers  and  a  survey  of  it  will  give  the  names  and 
sizes  of  the  fittings.  However,  I  show  a  few  common  ones. 
In  the  writer's  opinion,  the  studying  of  the  catalogue  would 
be  of  more  benefit  than  a  description  of  fittings  at  this 
point.  The  sizes  used  and  the  methods  employed  to  vent 
the  waste-pipe  systems  are  the  same  as  in  cast-iron  work. 

HANGERS  AND  SUPPORTS 

The  hanging  of  screw  pipe  is  a  very  essential  point.  The 
taking  of  the  strain  off  from  a  fitting  or  line  of  pipe  by  the 
use  of  a  hanger  is  the  means  of  avoiding  serious  trouble 
after  a  job  is  completed.  On  horizontal  runs  hangers  are 
placed  not  more  than  8  feet  apart.  In  a  building  con- 
structed of  wood,  the  hangers  are  secured  to  the  joists. 
In  a  building  constructed  of  steel  beams  and  concrete  the 
hangers  are  secured  to  the  steel  beams  by  means  of  I-beam 
hangers  that  clamp  on  the  beams;  also  in  the  case  of  con- 


138 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


crete  the  hangers  are  extended  through  the  floor  and  a  T 
is  put  on  the  hanger  on  top  of  the  cement  floor;  an  iron  bar 
or  a  short  piece  of  smaller  pipe  run  through  the  T  holds  the 
hanger  in  place  and  secures  it  rigidly.  The  finished  floor  is 
laid  over  the  hanger  so  that  it  does  not  show  from  the  top. 
Hangers  on  the  vertical  lines  should  be  placed  at  every 
joint  and  under  each  fitting.  To  have  the  pipe  in  true 
alignment,  the  hangers  must  be  hung  and  placed  in  line. 
Every  riser  line  must  have  an  extra  support  at  the  base  to 
avoid  any  settling  of  the  stack  which  will  crack  the  fittings 
and  break  fixture  connections. 


MEASUREMENTS 

The  proper  installation  of  screw  pipe  work  requires  get- 
ting correct  and  accurate  measurements.  Every  plumber 
is  or  should  be  able  to  get  correct  center  to  center,  center  to 
end,  end  to  end,  center  to  back,  and  end  to  back  measure- 
ments. In  Durham  work  45°  angles  are  continually  occur- 
ring. To  get  these  measurements  correctly,  the  following 
table  has  been  compiled  as  used  by  the  author  and  found  to 
be  correct.  The  reader  should  memorize  it  so  that  it  may 
be  used  without  referring  to  the  book. 

MEASUREMENTS 


Soil  pipe 

Screw  pipe 

Multiplier 

K    bend 

60 

1.15 

H        ' 

45 

1.41 

H2 

30 

2. 

KG      ' 

22^ 

2.61 

Y32        ' 

1134 

5.12 

X*        ' 

&M 

10.22 

Before  any  measurements  are  taken,  the  lines  of  pipe  are 
laid  out  and  the  position  of  each  fitting  known.     As  I 


PIPE  AND  FITTINGS  139 

have  stated  before,  the  plumber  must  look  ahead  with  his 
work.  He  must  have  the  ability  of  practically  seeing  the 
pipe  in  place  before  the  work  is  started.  This  requires 
experience  and  judgment.  Before  the  measurements  are 
taken  and  the  pipe  cut  consideration  must  be  given  to  the 
fact  that  the  fittings  and  pipes  must  be  screwed  into  posi- 
tion. Therefore,  "can  the  fitting  on  the  pipe  be  placed 
where  it  is  laid  out  when  this  is  considered?"  must  be  one  of 


FIG.  76. — The  offset  is  B  or  12  inches  center  to  center.  The  offset  is 
made  using  45  degree  fittings.  Therefore  the  length  of  A  from  the  center 
of  one  fitting  to  the  center  of  the  other  is  B  X  1.41  =  12  X  1.41  =  16.92 
inches. 

the  many  questions  a  plumber  should  ask  himself.  Allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  the  chain  tongs  to  swing.  When- 
ever possible,  a  fitting  is  made  up  on  the  pipe  while  the  pipe 
is  in  the  vise 

FIXTURE  CONNECTIONS 

The  fixture  connections  when  screw  pipe  is  used  are  neces- 
sarily different  than  when  cast-iron  pipe  is  used.  A  brass 
nipple  is  wiped  on  a  piece  of  lead  pipe  and  then  screwed  into 
the  fitting  left  for  the  closet  connection.  The  lead  is 
flanged  over  above  the  floor  and  the  closet  set  on  it.  The 
lead  is  soldered  to  a  brass  flange.  The  brass  flange  is 
secured  to  the  floor  and  then  the  closet  bowl  secured  to  the 
brass  flange.  Another  method  employed  is  to  screw  a  brass 
flange  into  the  fitting  so  that  when  it  is  made  up  the  flange 
will  come  level  with  the  floor;  the  closet  bowl  is  then  secured 
to  this  flange.  There  are  a  number  of  patented  floor 


140  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

flanges  for  closet  bowl  connections  that  can  be  used  to 
advantage.  Slop  sinks  have  practically  the  same  connec- 
tions as  the  closets.  Other  fixtures  such  as  the  urinal, 
lavatory,  and  bath,  can  be  connected  with  a  short  piece  of 
lead  wiped  on  a  solder  nipple,  or  the  trimmings  for  the  fix- 
ture can  be  had  with  brass  having  iron  pipe  size  threads, 
and  the  connection  can  then  be  made  directly  with  the 
outlet  on  the  waste  line.  This  is  a  very  general  way  to 
describe  the  connections,  but  space  will  not  allow  a  de- 
tailed description  of  these  connections.  It  is  always  well 
to  allow  for  short  lead  connections  for  fixtures  so  that  the 
lead  will  give  if  the  stack  settles. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

GAS  FITTING,  PIPE  AND  FITTINGS,  THREADING,  MEASUR- 
ING, AND  TESTING 

GAS  AND  ITS  USE  IN  BUILDINGS 

Gas  is  in  common  use  in  all  classes  of  buildings  today. 
Dwellings  use  it  for  cooking  and  illuminating,  factories, 
office  buildings,  and  public  buildings  for  power.  In  some 
parts  of  the  country  natural  gas  is  found.  In  these  places 
it  is  used  freely  for  heating  fuel.  The  actual  making  of 
gas  is  something  that  every  plumber  should  understand. 
If  space  permitted  I  would  describe  a  gas  plant  with  all  of 
its  by-products.  However,  we  shall  deal  only  with  the 
actual  installation  of  gas  piping  in  buildings.  Gas  mains 
are  run  through  the  streets  the  same  as  water  mains  are 
run.  Branches  are  taken  off  these  mains  and  extended 
into  the  buildings  requiring  gas.  The  gas  company 
generally  installs  the  gas  service  pipe  inside  of  the  basement 
wall  and  places  a  stop  cock  on  it  free  of  charge.  This  stop 
that  is  placed  on  the  pipe  is  a  plug  core  type,  the  handle 
for  turning  it  off  is  square,  and  a  wrench  is  required  to 
turn  it.  The  square  top  has  a  lug  on  it.  There  is  also  a 
lug  corresponding  to  it  on  the  body  of  the  valve.  When 
the  valve  is  shut  off,  these  two  lugs  are  together.  Each 
lug  has  a  hole  in  it  large  enough  for  a  padlock  ring  to  pass 
through.  This  gives  the  gas  company  absolute  control  of 
the  gas  in  the  building. 

Setting  of  the  Meter. — Every  building  that  is  supplied 
with  gas  has  a  meter  that  registers  the  amount  of  gas  con- 

141 


142 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


sumed.  This  meter  is  placed  on  the  service  pipe  on  the 
house  side  of  the  above-mentioned  stop  cock.  This  meter 
is  furnished  free  of  charge  with  a  trivial  charge  made  for 
setting  up.  The  actual  setting  of  this  meter  is  not  made 
until  the  piping  throughout  the  building  has  had  a  thorough 
and  satisfactory  test  and  is  found  free  from  all  leaks.  The 
meter  must  be  set  level  on  a  substantial  bracket  and  in  a 
place,  if  possible,  where  it  will  not  require  an  artificial  light 
to  read  its  dial.  The  dry  meter  is  usually  used  in  dwellings. 
The  interesting  construction  and  mechanism  of  this  meter 
cannot  be  discussed  here. 


cubic 


ET 


FIG.  77. — Gas-meter  dials. 

The  reading  of  the  dials  on  a  gas  meter  comes  in  the  prov- 
ince of  the  plumber  and  he  should  be  able  to  read  them. 
The  sketch  shows  the  dial  plate  of  a  meter.  The  ordinary 
house  meter  has  only  three  recording  dials.  Large  meters 
have  five  or  more.  To  read  the  amount  of  gas  consumed 
according  to  the  meter  we  will  read  the  dials  as  they  are 
indicated  on  Fig.  77.  We  will  call  the  four  dials  No.  1, 
No.  2,  No.  3  and  No.  4.  In  each  of  these  dials  a  complete  rev- 
olution of  the  index  hand  denotes  1,000,  10,000,  100,000  and 
1,000,000,  cubic  feet  respectively.  The  index  hands  on  No. 


GAS  FITTING  143 

1  and  No.  3  revolve  in  the  same  direction,  while  No.  2  and 
No.  4  revolve  in  the  opposite  direction.  Two  ciphers  are 
added  to  the  figures  that  are  indicated  on  the  dials  and  the 
statement  of  the  meter  will  be  had.  To  tell  just  how  much 
gas  has  been  consumed  in  a  given  time,  the  statement  of  the 
meter  is  taken  at  the  beginning  of  this  given  time  and  at  the 
end  of  the  time.  The  difference  in  the  figures  indicates  the 
number  of  cubic  feet  of  gas  that  have  been  consumed.  A 
gas  cock  should  be  placed  on  the  house  side  of  the  meter. 
The  dials  of  meter  read  658,800  cubic  feet.  The  dial 
having  the  highest  number  is  read  first  No.  4  dial  points 
to  6,*this  indicates  that  No.  3  dial  has  revolved  6  times. 
Dial  No.  3  reads  5,  therefore  the  reading  of  dial  No.  3  and 
No.  4  is  65.  Dial  No.  2  reads  8  making  the  readings  of 
the  three  dials  658.  Dial  No.  1  reads  8  making  the  read- 
ings of  the  four  dials  6588  add  two  ciphers  to  this  figure 
and  658,800  is  the  correct  reading. 

Pipe  and  Fittings. — The  pipe  used  in  gas  fitting  is  wrought 
iron  or  steel.  In  special  places,  rubber  hose  is  used.  Brass 
pipe  is  occasionally  used  to  advantage.  The  fittings  used 
in  iron  pipe  gas  work  should  be  galvanized.  No  plain  fit- 
tings should  be  allowed.  The  plain  fittings  very  often 
have  sand  holes  in  them  and  a  leak  will  result.  Sometimes 
this  leak  does  not  appear  until  after  the  piping  has  been 
in  use  some  time  and  the  expense  of  replacing  the  fitting 
can  only  be  guessed  at.  By  using  galvanized  fittings,  this 
trouble  will  be  eliminated.  All  fittings  used  should  be  of 
the  beaded  type.  The  fitting  and  measurement  of  this 
work  is  practically  the  same  as  described  under  iron  pipe 
work.  To  have  the  beginner  get  a  clearer  idea  of  gas- 
piping  a  building,  the  piping  of  the  small  building  sketched 
will  be  gone  over  in  detail  and  studied.  One  of  the  first 
important  steps  that  a  gas  fitter  is  confronted  with  is  the 
locating  of  the  various  lights  and  openings.  With  these 
located  as  shown  on  the  plan,  Figs.  78,  79  and  80,  we  will 


144 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


proceed  to  work  out  the  piping.  The  first  floor  rise  will  be 
1-inch,  the  second  floor  will  be  1-inch.  The  horizontal  pipe 
supplying  the  first  floor  outlets  will  be  %-inch  pipe.  The 
horizontal  pipe  on  the  second  floor  will  be  %-ineh.  The 


FIG.  78. 


FIG.  79. 


balance  of  the  pipe  will  be  %-  or  J^-inch.  At  this  point 
your  attention  is  called  to  the  sketch  of  piping,  sizes,  and 
measurements.  This  sketch  should  be  studied  and  under- 
stood in  detail.  The  good  mechanic  will  employ  a  sketch 


GAS  FITTING 


145 


of  this  kind  when  installing  any  piping.  The  poor  mechanic 
will,  take  two  or  three  measurements  and  get  them  out, 
put  them  in,  and  then  get  some  more.  This  method  is 
extremely  costly  and  unworkmanlike.  There  is  no  reason, 
except  the  ability  of  the  workman,  why  he  cannot  take  a 
building  like  the  sketch  and  get  all  the  piping  measure- 
ments for  the  job,  then  get  them  out,  go  to  the  job  and  put 
them  in.  The  amount  of  time  saved  in  this  way  is  so  great 
that  a  workman  should  not  consider  himself  a  full-fledged 
mechanic  until  he  can  get  the  measurements  this  way,  and 


FIG.  80. 

get  them  accurately.  With  a  tape  line,  gimlet,  and  plumb- 
bob,  a  mechanic  is  fully  equipped  with  tools  to  get  his 
measurements.  If  the  measurements  are  taken  with  a  tape 
line,  the  same  tape  line  should  be  used  when  measuring 
the  pipe  and  cutting  it.  When  laying  out  the  piping,  never 
allow  a  joist  to  be  cut  except  within  6  inches  of  its  bearing. 
It  is  good  policy  never  to  cut  timber  unless  absolutely 
necessary  and  then  only  after  consulting  with  the  car- 
penter. When  joists  have  to  be  notched  they  should  be 
cut  only  on  the  top  side.  The  pipe  as  it  is  put  in  place 
should  be  braced  rigidly.  Wherever  there  is  an  outlet 
pipe  extending  through  the  wall,  the  pipe  should  be  braced 
10 


146 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


from  all  sides  so  that  when  the  fixture  is  screwed  in  it  will 
be  perfectly  rigid. 

The  measurements  on  the  piping  sketch,  Fig.  81,  are 
taken  from  the  accompanying  sketch  of  a  dwelling,  and  if 
they  were  to  be  actually  put  in,  they  would  fit.  The  reader 
would  do  well  to  copy  this  sketch  and  follow  the  piping 


All  'Fixture  Branches^" 
FIG.  81. — Pipe  sketch. 

and  check  the  measurements  according  to  the  plan,  and 
note  how  the  different  risers,  drops,  etc.,  are  drawn.  It 
is  not  necessary  in  a  sketch  of  this  kind  to  draw  to  a  scale. 
After  the  different  measurements  are  the  letters  C.C., 
E.G.,  E.E.j  C.B.  and  E.B.,  meaning  center  to  center,  end 
to  center,  end  to  end,  center  to  back,  and  end  to  back, 
respectively.  Offsetting  pipe  is  a  very  convenient  way  of 


GAS  FITTING  147 

getting  the  pipe  or  fittings  back  to  the  wall  for  support. 
To  offset  pipe  properly  and  with  little  trouble,  take  a  piece 
of  scantling  2  by  4  and  brace  it  between  the  floor  and 
ceiling.  Bore  a  few  different-sized  holes  through  it  and 
you  will  have  a  very  handy  device  for  offsetting  pipe. 
There  is  a  little  trick  in  offsetting  pipe  that  one  will  have  to 
practice  to  obtain.  The  pipe  must  be  held  firmly  in  the 
place  where  the  pipe  is  to  be  bent.  Large  offsets  and  bends 
should  not  be  made;  2  to  4  inches  is  as  large  as  should  be 
used.  Larger  offsets  that  are  required  should  be  made 
with  fittings.  Always  make  the  offsets  true  and  have  the 
ends  perfectly  straight.  Before  putting  a  piece  of  pipe  per- 
manently in  place,  always  look  or  blow  through  it,  to  ascer- 
tain if  its  bore  is  obstructed  or  not.  Sometimes  dirt  or  slag 
will  collect  and  cause  stoppage. 

Reading  the  Pipe  Sketch. — Vertical  lines  represent 
vertical  pipes  (see  Fig.  81).  Horizontal^  lines  represent 
horizontal  pipes  running  parallel  to  the  front.  Diagonal 
lines  represent  horizontal  pipes  running  from  back  to 
front.  Any  line  that  is  drawn  perpendicular  to  any  other 
line  stands  for  a  horizontal  pipe.  A  diagonal  line  separat- 
ing a  vertical  line  or  horizontal  line  or  set  of  lines  represents 
a  different  horizontal  plane.  With  this  explanation  the 
sketch  will  be  made  clear  to  one  after  drawing  it.  The 
reader  should  now  take  each  measurement  and  check  it  on 
the  plan.  This  is  easily  done  by  using  a  scale  rule.  The 
height  of  the  ceiling  is  8^  feet  on  the  first  floor,  the  second 
floor  is  8  feet.  The  first  floor  joists  are  10  inches,  the  second 
floor  joists  are  9  inches.  An  outlet  is  indicated  by  a  small 
circle.  In  the  piping  sketch,  this  circle  is  connected  with 
the  riser  or  drop  by  a  horizontal  line.  At  the  junction  of 
these  two  lines  a  short  perpendicular  line  is  drawn,  and  in- 
dicates the  direction  of  the  outlet. 

Let  me  again  emphasize  the  need  to  understand  thor- 
oughly this  piping  sketch,  and  to  become  so  familiar  with 


148  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

it  that  it  can  readily  be  put  to  use.  The  value  of  a  mechanic 
is  determined  by  the  quality  and  the  quantity  of  work 
that  he  can  turn  out;  and  a  mechanic  who  can  lay  out  his 
work  and  see  it  completed  before  he  starts,  and  then  pro- 
ceeds to  install  his  work,  is  by  far  of  more  value  to  his  em- 
ployer than  the  man  who  can  see  only  far  enough  ahead  to 
cut  out  two  or  three  measurements  and  spends  most  of  his 
time  walking  between  the  vise  and  place  of  installing  the 
pipe. 

Testing. — The  system  of  gas  piping  must  be  tested  before 
the  pipes  have  been  covered  by  the  advance  of  building 
operations.  If  the  job  is  of  considerable  size,  the  job  can 
be  tested  in  sections,  and  if  found  tight  the  sections  can  be 
covered.  The  necessity  of  having  the  piping  rigidily 
secured  can  be  appropriately  explained  here.  If  the  test 
has  been  made  and  the  system  found  tight  and  some  pipe 
that  is  not  securely  anchored  is  accidentally  or  otherwise 
pushed  out  of  place  and  bent  by  some  of  the  mechanics 
working  about  the  building,  a  leak  may  be  caused  and  yet 
not  discovered  until  the  final  test  is  made  after  the  plastering 
is  finished.  The  expense  and  trouble  thus  caused  is  con- 
siderable and  coulH  have  been  avoided  by  simply  putting 
in  the  proper  supports  for  the  pipe. 

To  test  the  piping,  an  air  pump  and  a  gage  connected 
with  the  pipes  are  placed  in  a  convenient  position.  The 
job  should  now  be  thoroughly  gone  over,  making  sure  that 
all  plugs  and  caps  are  on  and  that  no  outlet  is  open,  also 
that  all  pipe  that  is  to  be  put  in  has  been  installed.  After 
this  has  been  attended  to,  the  pump  is  operated  until  10 
pounds  is  registered  on  the  gage.  The  connection  leading 
to  the  pump  and  the  piping  is  now  shut  off.  If  the  gage 
drops  rapidly,  there  is  a  bad  leak  in  the  system.  This 
leak  should  be  found  without  difficulty  and  repaired.  If 
the  gage  drops  slowly,  it  denotes  a  very  small  leak,  such  as 
a  sand  hole  or  a  bad  thread.  This  kind  of  leak  is  more 


GAS  FITTING  149 

troublesome  to  find.  When  it  has  been  found,  the  pipe  or 
fitting  causing  the  leak  should  be  taken  out  and  replaced. 
If  black  caps  have  been  used  to  cap  the  outlets,  the  chances 
are  that  a  sand  hole  will  be  found  in  one  of  them.  Nothing 
but  galvanized  fittings  should  be  used.  In  case  the  small 
leak  mentioned  above  cannot  be  found  by  going  over  the 
pipe  once,  there  are  other  means  of  locating  the  leak.  Two 
of  the  methods  used,  I  will  explain.  If  tlje  job  is  small, 
each  fitting  is  painted  with  soap  suds  until  the  fitting  is 
found  that  causes  the  leak.  If  the  leak  is  not  in  the  fittings, 
then  the  pipe  can  be  gone  over  in  the  same  way.  As  soon  as 
the  soap  suds  strikes  the  leak,  a  large  bubble  is  made  and 
the  leak  discovered.  It  is  possible  that  there  are  more  leaks, 
so  the  gage  is  noted  and  if  it  still  drops,  the  search  should 
be  continued:  The  pump  should  be  operated  to  keep  the 
pressure  up  to  10  pounds  while  the  search  is  being  made 
for  the  leak.  When  the  gage  stands  at  10  pounds  without 
dropping,  the  job  is  then  tight.  The  pump  and  gage  fitting 
should  be  gone  over  first  to  ascertain  if  they  leak.  The 
other  method  employed  to  discover  leaks  is  to  force  a  little 
ether  or  oil  of  peppermint  (not  essence)  into  the  system  by 
means  of  the  pump.  A  leak  can  readily  be  noted  by  the 
odor.  To  make  this  method  successful,  the  ether  or  pepper- 
mint should  not  be  handled  by  the  men  who  are  to  hunt 
for  the  leak.  The  bottle  containing  the  fluid  should  not 
be  opened  in  the  building  except  to  pour  some  into  the 
piping,  otherwise  the  odor  will  get  into  the  building  and  as 
the  odor  comes  out  of  the  leak  it  will  not  be  noted.  For 
the  benefit  of  the  gas  fitter,  the  piping  should  be  tested  again 
after  the  plastering  is  completed.  The  next  test  is  made 
when  the  fixtures  are  put  on,  and  as  the  piping  is  tight  any 
leak  that  develops  in  this  test  indicates  that  the  fixtures 
leak.  There  are  in  common  use  various  methods  to  stop 
leaks  in  gas  pipe  when  they  are  found.  If  a  piece  of  piping 
or  a  fitting  is  defective,  it  should  be  taken  out  and  replaced. 


150  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

This  should  be  remembered  so  that  while  the  piping  is  being 
installed  any  defects  should  be  noted  and  the  defective  fit- 
ting or  pipe  thrown  out.  Before  the  gas  job  is  accepted, 
the  gas  company  will  inspect  it  and  look  for  traps  and  sags 
in  the  pipe.  Therefore,  the  piping  should  be  installed  with- 
out any  traps  and  it  should  be  arranged  to  pitch  toward 
the  meter,  or  toward  a  convenient  place  from  which  any 
condensation  can  be  taken  out.  If  provision  is  not  made 
for  this  condensation,  it  will  accumulate  and  stop  the  flow 
of  gas. 

SHOWER-BATH  CONNECTIONS 

The  sketches  show  clearly  the  methods  employed  to  make 
a  shower-bath  waste  and  stall  water-tight.  The  shower 
bath,  as  a  separate  fixture,  is  in  use  and  the  demand  for  it 


SHOWER  STALL 


•Shee-f-  Lead  soldered  -ho  Trap 


FILL 


Turned  up  ou~h. 
oT  Shall  Slab 


TELL-TALE* 


FIG.  82. — Shower  stall  with  lead  pan  extending  outside  of  stall. 

as  a  separate  fixture  is  increasing  rapidly.  This  demand 
comes  from  the  owners  of  private  houses.  The  plumber 
must  therefore  devise  some  way  to  make  these  connections 
tight  and  prevent  any  leak  from  showing  in  the  room  below. 


GAS  FITTING  151 

This  fixture  is  so  constructed  that  all  waste  pipes  and  trap 
come  under  the  floor  level  with  no  way  of  getting  to  them 
from  below.  Therefore  the  piping  for  this  fixture  must  be 
of  a  permanent  nature.  No  pipe  or  trap  made  of  material 
that  is  liable  to  give  out  in  a  short  time  should  be  allowed 
under  a  shower-bath  fixture  or  stall.  The  two  sketches, 
Figs.  82  and  83  illustrate  two  methods  of  connecting  and 
making  tight  a  shower  stall.  A  plumber  should  always 
consider  it  his  special  duty  to  make  his  work  complete  and 
free  from  all  objections.  He  should  always  prepare  for 


SHOWER  STALL 


STRAINER 
£==r- 
Shee-h  Lead.*  \  FILL 


-BRASS  TRAP 
FIQ.  83. — Shower  stall  with  lead  pan  extending  six  inches  beyond  strainer. 

any  emergency  that  may  occur  in  the  future.  This  is 
rather  a  big  task,  yet  the  plumber  when  accepting  all  of 
his  responsibilities  has  a  big  task.  I  state  this  to  the 
beginner  and  emphasize  the  all-important  fact  that  he  must 
learn  to  perform  and  think  deeply  of  the  elements  of 
plumbing  to  be  able  later  on  to  handle  successfully  the 
problems  that  present  themselves  in  the  plumbing  trade. 

The  heavy  brass  trap  shown  in  the  sketch  has  proved 
itself  very  satisfactory  and  can  be  made  to  fit  almost  any 
condition  of  piping  or  building  construction.  A  flashing 


152  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

of  sheet  lead  is  soldered  on  the  trap  and  carried  out  to  the 
outside  edge  of  the  stall  where  it  is  turned  up  1  inch,  or  to 
the  floor  level.  When  the  flashing  is  carried  out  for  only  a 
foot  on  each  side  of  the  trap,  the  possibilities  of  a  leak  are 
greater. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
PLUMBING  CODES 

The  work  of  plumbing  has  a  direct  result  on  the  health  of 
the  occupants  of  buildings;  therefore  in  order  that  the 
plumbing  may  not  be  installed  improperly  and  impair  the 
health  of  the  occupants,  it  is  necessary  to  provide  a  code 
governing  the  installation  of  plumbing.  Naturally  these 
laws  at  first  were  under  the  control  of  the  health  department 
of  cities,  but  of  late  years  the  building  departments  have 
assumed  control  of  the  codes  with  the  result  that  coopera- 
tion with  the  building  codes  is  now  the  practice  rather  than 
the  exception. 

To  make  certain  the  carrying  out  of  the  plumbing  codes, 
it  is  required  that  a  plan  indicating  the  run,  size,  and  length 
of  pipes,  location  and  number  of  fixtures  of  the  prospective 
job  be  filed  in  the  building  department  of  the  city,  before 
the  work  is  started.  If  the  plan  is  approved  by  the  plumb- 
ing inspector  and  acceptance  is  sent,  then  the  work  can  be 
started.  After  a  job  is  completed  a  test  is  made  and  the 
job  is  inspected  by  the  plumbing  inspector,  and  if  found  to 
meet  requirements  a  written  acceptance  of  the  work  is 
given  by  the  building  department.  An  effort  is  being  made 
throughout  the  country  to  have  the  plumbing  codes  under 
State  control  rather  than  have  a  number  of  different  codes 
in  as  many  different  cities  and  towns.  The  State  code  can 
be  so  arranged  that  it  will  apply  to  either  city  or  town. 

The  installation  of  plumbing  varies  in  different  States. 
In  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  all  pipes  which 
pass  through  the  roof,  if  less  than  4-inch  must  be  increased 

153 


154  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

to  4-inch.  A  pipe  smaller  than  4-inch  will  be  filled  with 
hoar  frost  during  the  winter  and  render  the  pipe  useless  to 
perform  its  function  as  a  vent  pipe.  Pipes  laid  under 
ground  in  the  Northern  States  must  be  at  least  4  feet  below 
the  surface  to  protect  them  from  freezing.  In  the  Southern 
States  the  frost  does  not  penetrate  the  ground  to  such  a 
distance  and  the  pipes  can  be  laid  on  the  surface. 

Following  is  a  State  or  City  plumbing  code  insofar  as 
it  relates  to  the  actual  installation  of  plumbing. 

SEC.  1.  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS. — There  shall  be  a  separate 
plan  for  each  building,  public  or  private,  or  any  addition  thereto, 
or  alterations  thereof,  accompanied  by  specifications  showing 
the  location,  size  and  kind  of  pipe,  traps,  closets  and  fixtures  to 
be  used,  which  plans  and  specifications  shall  be  filed  with  the  board 
or  bureau  of  buildings.  The  said  plans  and  specifications  shall 
be  furnished  by  the  architect,  plumber  or  owner,  and  filed  by  the 
plumber.  All  applications  for  change  in  plans  must  be  made  in 
writing. 

SEC.  2.  FILING  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS. — Plumbers  before 
commencing  the  construction  of  plumbing  work  in  any  building 
(except  in  case  of  repairs,  which  are  here  defined  to  relate  to  the 
mending  of  leaks  in  soil,  vent,  or  waste  pipes,  faucets,  valves  and 
water-supply  pipes,  and  shall  not  be  construed  to  admit  of  the 
replacing  of  any  fixture,  such  an  water  closets,  bath  tubs,  lavato- 
ries, sinks,  etc.,  or  the  respective  traps  for  such  fixtures)  shall 
submit  to  the  bureau  plans  and  specifications,  legibly  drawn  in 
ink,  on  blanks  to  be  furnished  by  said  board  or  bureau.  Where 
two  or  more  buildings  are  located  together  and  on  the  same 
street,  and  the  plumbing  work  is  identical  in  each,  one  plan  will 
be  sufficient.  Plans  will  be  approved  or  rejected  within  24  hours 
after  their  receipt. 

SEC.  3.  MATEKIAL  OF  HOUSE  DRAIN  AND  SEWER. — House 
drains  or  soil  pipes  laid  beneath  floor  must  be  extra  heavy  cast- 
iron  pipe,  with  leaded  and  caulked  joints,  and  carried  5  feet 
outside  cellar  wall.  All  drains  and  soil  pipes  connected  with 
main  drain  where  it  is  above  the  cellar  floor  shall  be  extra  heavy 
cast-iron  pipe  with  leaded  joints  properly  secured  or  of  heavy 


PLUMBING  CODES 


155 


wrought-iron  pipe  with  screw  joints  properly  secured  and  carried 
5  feet  outside  cellar  wall  and  all  arrangements  for  soil  and  waste 
pipes  shall  be  run  as  direct  as  possible.  Changes  of  direction  on 
pipes  shall  be  made  with  "Y"-  branches,  both  above  and  below 
the  ground,  and  where  such  pipes  pass  through  a  new  foundation- 
wall  a  relieving  arch  shall  be  built  over  it,  with  a  2-inch  space  on 
either  side  of  the  pipe. 

SEC.  4.: — The  size  of  main  house  drain  shall  be  determined  by 
the  total  area  of  the  buildings  and  paved  surfaces  to  be  drained, 
according  to  the  following  table,  if  iron  pipe  is  used.  If  the  pipe 
is  terra-cotta  the  pipe  shall  be  one  size  larger  than  for  the  same 
amount  of  area  drainage. 


Diameter 

Fall  J4  inch  per  foot 

Fall  M  inch  per  foot 

4  inches  
5  inches  
6  inches  
8  inches  
10  inches...  .  . 

1,800  square  feet  drainage 
3,000  square  feet  drainage 
5,000  square  feet  drainage 
9,100  square  feet  drainage 
14,000  square  feet  drainage 

2,500  square  feet  drainage  area 
4,500  square  feet  drainage  area 
7,500  square  feet  drainage  area 
13,600  square  feet  drainage  area 
20,000  square  feet  drainage  area 

The  main  house  drains  may  be  decreased  in  diameter  beyond 
the  rain-water  conductor  or  surface  inlet  by  permission  of  the 
bureau,  when  the  plans  show. that  the  conditions  are  such  as  to 
warrant  such  decrease,  but  in  no  case  shall  the  main  house  drain 
be  less  than  4  inches  in  diameter. 

SEC.  5.  MAIN  TRAP. — An  iron  running  trap  with  two  clean- 
outs  must  be  placed  in  the  house  drain  near  the  front  wall  of  the 
house,  and  on  the  sewer  side  of  all  connections.  If  placed  outside 
the  house  or  below  the  cellar  floor  the  clean-outs  must  extend  to 
surface  with  brass  screw  cap  ferrules  caulked  in.  If  outside  the 
house,  it  must  never  be  placed  less  than  4  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground. 

SEC.  6.  FRESH-AIR  INLET. — A  fresh-air  inlet  pipe  must  be 
connected  with  the  house  drain  just  inside  of  the  house  trap  and 
extended  to  the  outer  air,  terminating  with  a  return  bend,  or  a 
vent  cap  or  a  grating  with  an  open  end  1  foot  above  grade  at  the 
most  available  point  to  be  determined  by  the  building  department. 


156  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

The  fresh-air  inlet  pipe  must  be  4  inches  in  diameter  for  house 
drains  of  6  inches  or  less  and  as  much  larger  as  the  building  depart- 
ment may  direct  for  house  drains  more  than  6  inches  in  diameter. 

SEC.  7.  LAYING  OF  HOUSE  SEWERS  AND  DRAINS. — House 
sewers  and  house  drains  must,  where  possible,  be  given  an  even 
grade  to  the  main  sewer  of  not  less  than  ^  inch  to  the  foot. 
Full-sized  "Y"  -and  "T "-branch  fittings  for  handhole  clean-outs 
must  be  provided  where  required  on  house  drain  and  its  branches. 
No  clean-out  need  be  larger  than  6  inches. 

SEC.  8.  FLOOR  DRAINS. — Floor  or  other  drains  will  only  be 
permitted  when  it  can  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  depart- 
ment of  building  that  their  use  is  absolutely  necessary,  and  arrange- 
ments made  to  maintain  a  permanent  water  seal,  and  be  provided 
with  check  or  back-water  valves. 

SEC.  9.  WEIGHT  AND  THICKNESS  OF  CAST-IRON  PIPE. — All  cast- 
iron  pipes  must  be  uncoated  excepting  all  laid  under  ground, 
which  shall  be  thoroughly  tarred,  sound,  cylindrical  and  smooth, 
free  from  cracks,  sand  holes  and  other  defects,  and  of  uniform 
thickness  and  of  grade  known  to  commerce  as  extra  heavy.  Cast- 
iron  pipe  including  the  hub  shall  weigh  not  less  than  the  follow- 
ing weights  per  linear  foot: 

2-inch  pipe 5^  pounds  per  foot. 

3-inch  pipe 9^  pounds  per  foot. 

4-inch  pipe 13      pounds  per  foot. 

5-inch  pipe 17      pounds  per  foot. 

6-inch  pipe 20      pounds  per  foot. 

7-inch  pipe 27      pounds  per  foot. 

8-inch  pipe 33)^  pounds  per  foot. 

10-inch  pipe 45      pounds  per  foot. 

12-inch  pipe 54      pounds  per  foot. 

All  cast-iron  pipe  must  be  tested  to  50  pounds  and  marked  with 
the  maker's  name. 

All  joints  in  cast-iron  pipe  must  be  made  with  picked  oakum 
and  molten  lead  and  caulked  gas-tight.  Twelve  ounces  of  soft 
pig  lead  must  be  used  at  each  joint  for  each  inch  in  the  diameter 
of  the  pipe. 

SEC.  10.  WROUGHT-IRON  AND  STEEL  PIPE. — All  wrought-iron 
and  steel  pipe  shall  be  galvanized.  Fittings  used  for  drainage 


PLUMBING  CODES  157 

must  be  galvanized  and  of  recess  type  known  as  drainage  fittings. 
All  fittings  used  for  venting  shall  be  galvanized  and  of  the  style 
known  as  steam  pattern.  No  plain  black  pipe  or  fittings  will  be 
permitted. 

SEC.  11.  SUB-SOIL  DRAINS. — Sub-soil  drains  must  be  discharged 
into  a  sump  or  receiving  tank,  the  contents  of  which  must  be 
lifted  and  discharged  into  the  drainage  system  above  the  cellar 
floor  by  some  approved  method.  Where  directly  sewer-connected, 
they  must  be  cut  off  from  the  rest  of  the  building  and  plumbing 
system  by  a  brass  flap  valve  on  the  inlet  to  the  catch  basjn  and 
the  trap  on  the  drain  from  the  catch  basin  must  be  water- 
supplied. 

SEC.  12.  YARD  AND  AREA  DRAINS. — All  yard,  area  and  court 
drains  when  sewer-connected  must  have  connection  not  less  than 
4  inches  in  diameter.  They  should  be  controlled  by  one  trap — the 
leader  trap  if  possible.  All  yards,  areas  and  courts  must  be  drained. 
Tenement  houses  and  lodging  houses  must  have  yards,  areas  and 
courts  drained  into  sewer. 

SEC.  13.  USE  OF  OLD  DRAINS  AND  SEWERS. — Old  house  drains 
and  sewers  may  be  used  in  connection  with  new  buildings  or  new 
plumbing,  only  when  they  are  found,  on  examination  by  the 
department  of  building,  to  conform  in  all  respects  to  the  require- 
ments governing  new  sewers  and  drains.  All  extensions  to  old 
house  drains  must  be  of  extra  heavy  cast-iron  pipe. 

SEC.  14.  LEADER  PIPES. — All  building  shall  be  provided  with 
proper  metallic  leaders  for  conducting  water  from  the  roofs  in 
such  manner  as  shall  protect  the  walls  and  foundations  of  such 
buildings  from  injury.  In  no  case  shall  the  water  from  such 
leaders  be  allowed  to  flow  upon  the  sidewalk  but  the  same  shall 
be  conducted  by  a  pipe  or  pipes  to  the  sewer.  If  there  is  no 
sewer  in  the  street  upon  which  such  building  fronts,  then  the 
water  from  said  leader  shall  be  conducted,  by  proper  pipes  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  sidewalk,  to  the  street  gutter. 

Inside  leaders  shall  be  constructed  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron 
or  steel,  with  roof  connections  made  gas-  and  water-tight  by  means 
of  heavy  copper  drawn  tubing  slipped  into  the  pipe.  The  tubing 
must  slip  at  least  7  inches  into  the  pipe.  Outside  leaders  may 
be  of  sheet  metal,  but  they  must  connect  with  the  house  drain 


158 


ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 


by  means  of  cast-iron  pipe  extending  vertically  5  feet  above  grade 
level,  where  the  building  is  located  along  public  driveways  or  side- 
walks. Where  the  building  is  located  off  building  line,  and  not 
liable  to  be  damaged  the  connection  shall  be  made  with  iron  pipe 
extending  1  foot  above  the  grade  level. 

All  leaders  must  be  trapped  with  running  traps  of  cast  iron,  so 
placed  as  to  prevent  freezing. 

Rain  leaders  must  not  be  used  as  soil,  waste  or  vent  pipes,  nor 
shall  such  pipes  be  used  as  rain  leaders. 

SEC.  15. — EXHAUST  FROM  STEAM  PIPES,  ETC. — No  steam  dis- 
charge or  exhaust,  blow-off  or  drip  pipe  shall  connect  with  the 
sewer  or  the  house  drain,  leader,  soil  pipe,  waste  or  vent  pipe. 
Such  pipes  shall  discharge  into  a  tank  or  condenser,  from  which 
suitable  outlet  to  the  sewer  shall  be  made.  Such  condenser 
shall  be  supplied  with  water,  to  help  condensation  and  help 
protect  the  sewer,  and  shall  also  be  supplied  with  relief  vent  to 
carry  off  dry  steam. 

SEC.  16.  DIAMETER  OF  SOIL  PIPE. — The  smallest  diameter 
of  soil  pipe  permitted  to  be  used  shall  be  4  inches.  The  size  of 
soil  pipes  must  not  be  less  than  those  set  forth  in  the  following 
tables. 

Maximum  number  of  fixtures  connected  to: 


Size  of  pipe 

'    Waste  and  soil  combined 

Soil  pipe  alone 

Branch 
fixtures 

Main 
fixtures 

Branch 
water  closets 

Main 
water  closets 

4-inch 

48 

96 

8 

16 

45-inch 

96 

192 

16 

32 

6-inch 

268 

336 

34 

68 

If  the  building  is  six  (6)  and  less  than  twelve  (12)  stories  in 
height,  the  diameter  shall  not  be  less  than  5  inches.  If  more  than 
twelve  (12)  it  shall  be  6  inches,  in  diameter.  A  building  six 
(6)  or  more  stories  in  height,  with  fixtures  located  below  the  sixth 
floor,  soil  pipe  4  inches  in  diameter  will  be  allowed  to  extend 


PLUMBING  CODES  159 

through  the  roof  provided  the  number  of  fixtures  does  not  exceed 
the  number  given  in  the  table.  All  soil  pipes  must  extend  at 
least  2  feet  above  the  highest  window,  and  must  not  be  reduced 
in  size.  Traps  will  not  be  permitted  on  main,  vertical,  soil  or 
waste-pipe  lines.  Each  house  must  have  a  separate  line  of  soil 
and  vent  pipes.  No  soil  or  waste  line  shall  be  constructed  on  the 
outside  of  a  building. 

Fixtures  with: 

1-1 34-inch  traps  count  as  one  fixture. 

1-1 M    "    traps  count  as  one  fixture. 

1-2         '    traps  count  as  two  fixtures. 

1-2^    "    traps  count  as  three  fixtures. 

1-3         '    traps  (water  closets)  count  as  four  fixtures. 

1-4         '    traps  count  as  five  fixtures. 

SEC.  17.  CHANGE  IN  DIRECTION. — All  sewer,  soil,  and  waste 
pipes  must  be  as  direct  as  possible.  Changes  in  direction  must 
be  made  with  "Y"-  or  half  "Y  "-branches  or  one-eighth  bends. 
Offsets  in  soil  or  waste  pipes  will  not  be  permitted  when  they 
can  be  avoided,  nor,  in  any  case  unless  suitable  provision  is  made 
to  prevent  the  accumulation  of  rust  or  other  obstruction.  Offsets 
must  be  made  with  fourth  degree  bends  or  similar  fittings.  The 
use  of  T  "Y"s  (sanitary  Ts)  will  be  permitted  on  upright  lines 
only. 

SEC.  18.  JOINTS  ON  SOIL  AND  WASTE  PIPES. — Connection  on 
lead  and  cast-iron  pipe  shall  be  made  with  brass  sleeve  or  ferrule, 
of  the  same  size  as  the  lead  pipe  inserted  in  the  hub  of  the  iron 
pipe,  and  caulked  with  lead.  The  lead  must  be  attached  to  the 
ferrule  by  means  of  a  wiped  joint.  Joints  between  lead  and 
wrought-iron  pipes  must  be  made  with  brass  nipple,  of  same  size 
as  lead  pipe.  The  lead  pipe  must  be  attached  to  the  brass  nipple 
by  means  of  a  wiped  joint.  All  connections  of  lead  waste  pipes 
must  be  made  by  means  of  wiped  joints. 

Short  nipples  on  wrought-iron  and  steel  pipes  must  be  of  thick- 
ness and  weight  known  as  " extra  heavy"  or  ''extra  strong." 

Brass  ferrules  must  be  best  quality,  extra  heavy  cast  brass,  not 
less  than  4  inches  long  and  234,  3^6  and  4^  inches  in  diameter 
and  not  less  than  the  following  weights: 


160  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

Diameters  Weights 

234  inches 1  pound    0  ounce. 

3%  inches 1  pound  12  ounces. 

43^  inches 2  pounds  8  ounces. 

SEC.  19.  SOLDER  NIPPLES. — Solder  nipples  must  be  heavy  cast 
brass  or  of  brass  pipe,  iron  pipe  size.  When  cast  they  must  be 
not  less  than  the  following  weights: 

Diameters  Weight 

13^  inches 0  pound    8  ounces. 

2  inches 0  pound  14  ounces. 

23^  inches  . .  .  -. 1  pound    6  ounces. 

3  inches 2  pounds  0  ounce. 

4  inches 3  pounds  8  ounces. 

SEC.  20.  BRASS  CLEAN-OUTS. — Brass  screw  caps  for  clean-outs 
must  be  extra  heavy,  not  less  than  3^  inch  thick.  The  screw  cap 
must  have  a  solid  square  or  hexagonal  nut  not  less  than  1  inch 
high  and  a  least  diameter  of  13^  inches.  The  body  of  the  clean- 
out  ferrule  must  be  at  least  equal  in  weight  and  thickness  to  the 
caulking  ferrule  for  the  same  size  pipe. 

SEC.  21.  LEAD  WASTE  PIPE. — All  lead  waste,  soil  vent  and  flush 
pipes  must  be  of  the  best  quality,  known  in  commerce  as  "D, " 
and  of  not  less  than  the  following  weights  per  linear  foot : 

Diameters  Weights 

1J4  inches 23^  pounds. 

13^  inches 3      pounds. 

2  inches 4      pounds. 

3  inches 6      pounds. 

4  inches 8      pounds. 

All  lead  traps  and  bends  must  be  of  the  same  weight  and  thick- 
nesses as  their  corresponding  pipe  branches. 

SEC.  22.  ROOF  FLASHERS. — Sheet  lead  for  roof  flashings  must 
be  6-pound  lead  and  must  extend  not  less  than  6  inches  from  the 
pipe  and  the  joint  made  water-tight. 

SEC.  23.  TRAPS  FOR  BATH  TUBS,  WATER  CLOSETS,  ETC. — 
Every  sink,  bath  tub,  basin,  water  closet,  slop  hopper,  or  fixtures 
having  a  waste  pipe,  must  be  furnished  with  a  trap,  which  shall 
be  placed  as  close  as  practicable  to  the  fixture  that  it  serves  and 
in  no  case  shall  it  be  more  than  1  foot.  The  waste  pipe  from  the 


PLUMBING  CODES 


161 


bath  tub  or  other  fixtures  must  not  be  connected  with  a  water- 
closet  trap. 

SEC.  24.  SIZE  OF  HORIZONTAL  AND  VERTICAL  WASTE  PIPES, 
TRAPS  AND  BRANCHES. — 

Horizontal  and  vertical  Number  of  small  fixtures 

l^-inch 1 

1^-inch ..       2 

2  -inch 3  to  8 

2K-inch 9  to  20 

3  -inch 21  to  44 

If  building  is  ten  (10)  or  more  stories  in  height,  the  vertical 
waste  pipe  shall  not  be  less  than  3  inches  in  diameter.  The  use 
of  wrought-iron  pipe  for  waste  pipe  2  inches  or  less  in  diameter 
is  prohibited. 

The  size  of  traps  and  waste  branches,  for  a  given  fixture,  shall 
be  as  follows: 


Kind  of  fixtures 


Size  in  inches 


Trap          Branch 


Water  closet 3  4 

Slop  sink  with  trap  combined 3  3 

Slop  sink  ordinary 2  2 

Pedestal  urinal 3  3 

Floor  drain  or  wash 4  4 

Yard  drain  or  catch  basin 4  4 

Urinal  trough 2  2 

Laundry  trays,  two  or  five 2  2 

Combination  sink  and  tray  (for  each  fixture) !}<£          2 

Kitchen  sinks,  small 

Kitchen  sinks,  large  hotel,  etc . 

Kitchen  sinks,  grease  trap 2 

Pantry  sinks 

Wash  basin,  one  only \y±          \y± 

Bath  tub 2  2 

Shower  baths ....    

Shower  baths,  floor 2  2 

Sitz  bath 

Drinking  fountains 

11 


162  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

SEC.  25.  OVERFLOW  PIPES. — Overflow  pipes  from  fixtures  must 
in  all  cases  be  connected  on  the  inlet  side  of  the  traps. 

SEC.  26.  SETTING  OF  TRAPS  WITHOUT  RE-VENT. — All  traps 
must  be  substantially  supported  and  set  true  with  respect  to 
their  water  levels.  No  pot,  bottle  or  "D  "  trap  will  be  permitted 
nor  any  form  of  trap  that  is  not  self -cleaning,  nor  that  has  interior 
chambers  or  mechanism  nor  any  trap  except  earthenware  ones 
that  depend  upon  interior  partitions  for  a  seal.  In  case  there  is 
an  additional  fixture  required  in  building  and  it  is  impossible  to 
re-vent  pipe  for  the  trap,  the  building  department  may  designate 
the  kind  of  trap  to  be  used.  This  shall  not  be  construed  to  allow 
traps  without  re-vents  in  new  buildings. 

SEC.  27.  SAFE  AND  REFRIGERATOR  PIPES. — Safe-waste  pipes 
must  not  connect  directly  with  any  part  of  the  plumbing  system. 
Safe-waste  pipes  must  discharge  over  an  open,  water-supplied, 
publicly-placed,  ordinary-used  sink,  placed  not  more  than  3^ 
feet  above  the  cellar  floor.  The  safe  waste  from  a  refrigerator 
must  be  trapped  at  the  bottom  of  the  line  only  and  must  not  dis- 
charge upon  the  ground  floor,  but  over  an  ordinary  open  pan,  or 
some  properly-trapped,  water-supplied  sink,  as  above.  In  no 
case  shall  the  refrigerator  waste  pipe  discharge  into  a  sink  located 
in  a  living  room. 

The  branches  on  vertical  lines  must  be  made  by  means  of  "Y" 
fittings  and  be  carried  to  the  safe  with  as  much  pitch  as  possible. 
Where  there  is  an  offset  on  the  refrigerator  waste  pipe  in  the  cellar, 
there  must  be  clean-outs  placed.  These  clean-outs  must  be  of 
brass. 

In  tenement  and  lodging  houses  the  refrigerator  waste  pipe 
must  extend  above  the  roof,  and  not  be  larger  than  1^  inches  and 
the  branches  not  smaller  than  \y±  inches.  Refrigerator  waste 
pipes,  except  in  tenement  houses,  and  all  safe-waste  pipes,  must 
have  brass  flap  valve  on  the  lower  ends.  Lead  safes  must  be 
graded  and  neatly  turned  over  beveled  strips  at  their  edges. 

SEC.  28.  VENT-PIPE  MATERIAL. — Material  for  vent  pipes  shall 
be  of  lead,  brass,  enameled  iron  or  galvanized  iron. 

SEC.  29.  VENTILATION  OF  TRAPS  AND  SOIL  LINES. — Traps 
shall  be  protected  from  siphonage  or  air  pressure  by  special  vent 
pipes  of  a  size  of  not  less  than  the  following  tables: 


PLUMBING  CODES 


163 


Size  of  pipe 

Maximum 
length  in  feet 

Number  of  traps  vented 

Mains 

Branch 

Main  vertical 

13^  -inch  vent 

20  feet 
40  feet 
65  feet 
100  feet 
10  or  more 
stories 

1 

2  or  less 
10  or  less 
20  or  less 
60  or  less 

20  or  less 
40  or  less 
100  or  less 

1^-inch  vent  
2-inch  vent                    .  . 

23^j  -inch  vent 

3-inch  vent  

The  branch  vent  shall  not  be  less  than  the  following  sizes: 

\Y±  inches  in  diameter  for  1%  inch  trap. 
1^  inches  in  diameter  for  1%  inch  to  2^  inch  trap. 
2  inches  in  diameter  for  3  inch  to  4  inch  trap. 
One-half  their  diameter,  for  traps  3  inches  and  over. 

Where  two  or  more  closets  are  placed  side  by  side,  on  a  hori- 
zontal branch,  the  branch  line  shall  have  a  relief  extended  as  a 
loop.  A  pipe  2  inches  in  diameter  shall  be  sufficient  as  a  loop  vent 
for  two  closets.  A  pipe  3  inches  in  diameter  shall  be  sufficient 
as  a  relief  for  three  or  four  closets;  and  where  more  than  four 
closets  are  located  on  the  same  branch,  the  relief  shall  not  be  less 
than  4  inches  in  diameter.  All  house  drains  and  soil  lines  on 
which  a  water  closet  is  located  must  have  a  4-inch  main  vent  line. 
Where  an  additional  closet  is  located  in  the  cellar  or  basement, 
and  within  10  feet  of  main  soil  or  vent  line,  no  relief  vent  will  be 
required  for  said  closet;  but  where  it  is  more  than  10  feet,  a  2- 
inch  vent  line  will  be  required.  Relief  vent  pipes  for  water  closets 
must  not  be  less  than  2  inches  in  diameter,  for  a  length  of  40  feet, 
and  not  less  than  3  inches  in  diameter,  for  more  than  40  feet. 

No  re-vent  from  traps  under  bell  traps  will  be  required. 

In  any  building  having  a  sewer  connection  with  a  private  or 
public  sewer  used  for  bell-trap  connections  or  floor  drainage  only, 
a  2-inch  relief  line  must  be  extended  to  the  roof  of  the  building 
from  rear  end  of  main.  House  drains,  constructed  for  roof  drain- 
age only,  will  not  require  a  relief  vent. 

A  floor  trap  for  a  shower  shall  be  vented,  unless  located  in  the 


164  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

cellar  or  ground  floor  the  paving  of  which  renders  the  trap 
inaccessible. 

SEC.  30.  HORIZONTAL  VENT  PIPES. — Where  rows  of  fixtures 
are  placed  in  a  line,  fitting  of  not  less  than  45°  to  the  horizontal 
must  be  used  on  vent  lines  to  prevent  filling  with  rust  or  condensa- 
tion; except  on  brick  or  tile  walls,  where  it  is  necessary  to  channel 
same  for  pipes,  90°  fittings  will  be  allowed.  Trapped  vent  pipes 
are  strictly  prohibited.  No  vent  pipe  from  the  house  side  of  any 
trap  shall  connect  with  the  ventilation  pipe  or  with  sewer,  soil  or 
waste  pipe. 

SEC.  31.  OFFSET  ON  VENT  LINES. — All  offsets  on  vent  lines 
must  be  made  at  an  angle  of  not  less  than  45°  to  the  horizontal, 
and  all  lines  must  be  connected  at  the  bottom  with  a  soil  or  waste 
pipe,  or  the  drain,  in  such  manner  as  to  prevent  the  accumula- 
tion of  rust,  scale  or  condensation. 

No  sheet  metal,  brick,  or  other  flue  shall  be  used  as  a  vent  pipe. 

SEC.  32.  SETTING  OF  FIXTURES. — All  fixtures  must  be  set  open 
and  free  from  all  enclosing  woodwork.  Water  closets  and  urinals 
must  not  be  connected  directly  or  flushed  from  the  water-supply 
pipes  except  when  flushometer  valves  are  used.  Each  water 
closet  must  be  flushed  from  a  separate  cistern,  the  water  from 
which  is  used  for  no  other  purpose,  or  may  be  flushed  through 
flushometer  valves. 

Rubber  connection  and  elbows  are  not  permitted. 

Pan,  plunger,  or  hopper  closets  will  not  be  permitted  in  any 
building.  No  range  closet  either  wet  or  dry,  nor  any  evaporating 
system  of  closets  shall  be  constructed  or  allowed  inside  of  any 
building. 

A  separate  building  constructed  especially  for  the  purpose,  must 
be  provided  in  which  such  range  closets  shall  be  set. 

All  earthenware  traps  must  have  heavy  brass  floor  flange  plates, 
soldered  to  the  lead  bends  and  bolted  to  the  trap  flange,  and  the 
joint  made  permanently  secure  and  gas-tight. 

In  all  buildings  sewer-connected  there  must  be  at  least  one  water 
closet  in  each  building.  There  must  be  a  sufficient  number  of 
water  closets  so  that  there  will  never  be  more  than  15  people 
to  each  water  closet. 

Separate  water  closets  and  toilet  rooms  must  be  provided  for 


PLUMBING  CODES  165 

each  sex  in  buildings  used  as  workshops,  office  buildings,  factories, 
hotels  and  all  places  of  public  assembly. 

In  all  buildings  the  water  closet  and  urinal  apartments  must  be 
ventilated  into  the  outer  air  by  windows  opening  on  the  same  lot 
as  the  building  is  situated  on  or  by  a  ventilating  skylight  placed 
over  each  room  or  apartment  where  such  fixtures  are  located. 

In  all  buildings  the  outside  partition  of  any  water  closet  or 
urinal  apartment  must  be  air-tight  and  extend  to  the  ceiling  or 
be  independently  ceiled  over.  When  necessary  to  light  such 
apartments  properly  the  upper  part  of  the  partition  must  be 
provided  with  translucent  glass.  The  interior  partitions  of  such 
apartments  must  be  dwarfed  partitions. 

In  alteration  work  where  it  is  not  practicable  to  ventilate  a 
closet  or  urinal  apartment  by  windows  or  skylight  to  the  outer 
air,  there  must  be  provided  a  sheet-iron  duct  extending  to  the 
outer  air,  the  area  of  the  duct  must  be  at  least  144  square  inches 
for  one  water  closet  or  urinal,  and  an  additional  72  square  inches 
for  each  addition  closet  or  urinal  added  therein. 

SEC.  33.  URINALS. — All  urinals  must  be  constructed  of  materials 
impervious  to  moisture  and  that  will  not  corrode  under  the  action 
of  urine.  The  floors  and  walls  of  urinal  apartments  must  be  lined 
with  similar  non-absorbent  and  non-corrosive  material. 

The  platforms  and  treads  of  urinal  stalls  must  be  connected 
independently  of  the  plumbing  system,  nor  can  they  be  connected 
with  any  safe-waste  pipe. 

The  copper  lining  of  water  closet  and  urinal  cisterns  must  not 
be  lighter  than  12  ounces  copper,  and  must  be  stamped  on  lining 
with  maker's  name.  Where  lead  is  used  it  must  not  weigh  less 
than  4  pounds  to  the  square  foot.  All  other  materials  are 
prohibited. 

SEC.  34.  FIXTURES  PROHIBITED.— Wooden  wash  trays,  sinks, 
or  bath  tubs  are  prohibited  inside  buildings.  Such  fixtures  must 
be  constructed  of  non-absorbent  materials.  Cement  or  artificial 
stone  tubs  will  not  be  permitted,  unless  approved  by  the  plumbing 
inspector  and  building  department. 

Yard  water  closets  will  not  be  permitted  except  as  approved 
by  the  plumbing  inspector  and  then  passed  by  the  building 
department. 


166  ELEMENTS  OF  PLUMBING 

SEC.  35.  PRIVY  VAULTS  AND  CESSPOOLS. — No  privy  vault  or 
cesspool  for  sewage,  shall  be  constructed  in  any  part  of  the  city 
where  a  sewer  is  at  all  accessible.  In  parts  of  the  city  where  no 
sewer  exists  privy  vaults  and  cesspools  shall  not  be  located  within 
2  feet  of  party  or  street  line  nor  within  20  feet  of  any  building. 
Before  these  are  constructed  application  for  permission  therefor 
shall  be  made  to  the  building  department. 

SEC.  36.  MATERIAL  AND  WORKMANSHIP. — All  material  used  in 
the  work  of  plumbing  and  drainage  must  be  of  good  quality  and 
free  from  defects.  The  work  must  be  executed  in  a  thorough  and 
workmanlike  manner. 


INDEX 


Acid,  muriatic,  12 

B 

Banjo,  120 
Bath-tub,  5-6-7 

size  waste,  99 
Bending  irons,  15,  48,  59 
Bib,  wiping,  59,  68 
Bowls,  closet,  4,  5, 

C 

Caulking  joints,  89,  90 

Cellar  drainer,  84 

Cement,  pipe  joint,  122 

Cementing,  72,  73 

Circulation,  hot  water,  124,  129 

Closets,  3,  4,  5 

Cocks,  stop  and  waste,  120 

Code-plumbing,  153 

brass  clean-outs,  160 
change  in  direction,  159 
diameter  of  soil  pipes,  158 
exhaust  from   steam   pipes, 

158 

filing  plans,  154 
floor  drains,  156 
fresh-air  inlet,  155 
joints,  159 
laying  of  drains,  156 
lead  waste  pipe,  160 
leader  pipes,  157 


Code -plumbing,  main  trap,  155 

materials  of  drains,  154 

old  drains  and  sewers,  157 

over-flow  pipes,  162 

plans  and  specification,  154 

roof  flashers,  160 

safe  and  refrigerator  pipes, 
162 

size  of  drains,  155 
of  waste  pipes,  161 

solder  nipples,  160 

traps,  160 

without  vents,  162 

yard  and  area  drains,  157 
Code,  fixtures  prohibited,  165 

horizontal  vents,  164 

material  and  workmanship, 
166 

offsets,  164 

privy  vaults  and  cesspools, 
166 

setting  of  fixtures,  164 

urinals,  165 

vent,  pipe  material,  162 

ventilation  of  traps,  162 
Connecting,  sewers,  74 
Connections,  of  fixtures,  139 
Corporation  cock  and  tap,   76- 

77 

Coupling,  right  and  left,  116 
Covering,  pipe,  131 
Cup  joint,  14-66 
Curb  cock,  77-81 

box,  78-81 
Cutters,  pipe,  113 


167 


168 


INDEX 


Cutting,  terra-cotta  pipe,  72 
cast-iron  pipe,  93 


Hot  water  supply,  124 
House  drains,  86 
traps,  87,  104 


Dies,  112 

Drainage,  2 

Drains,  82,  83,  84,  87,  92 

Drift  plugs,  18 

Drum  trap,  61,  65,  68,  107 

Durham  work,  134 

E 

Earthenware,  3-5 
Expansion  joints,  129 


Ferrule,  brass,  37-43 

File,  15 

Fittings,  drainage,  136 

gas,  143 

screw  pipe,  98 

soil  pipe,  96 
Fixtures,  3 
Flushing,  3 
Flux,  12 
Fresh-air  inlet,  105 

G 

Gas  pipe  and  fittings,  143 

piping,  141,  144 
Goose  neck,  81 


Half  and  half  solder,  21 

Hammer,  15 

Hangers,  121,  137 

Heaters,  flue  connection,  130 
gas  coil,  126 
instantaneous,  127 


Inserting,  terra-cotta  pipe,  74 
Intercepting  trap,  92,  93 
Iron  enamelled  ware,  3 


Joints,     amount     of    lead     and 

oakum,  97 
caulk,  87,  89 
cup,  14 

expansion,  129 
of  sub-soil,  84 
overcast,  17 
runner,  90 
rust,  97 
seams,  19 
solder,  14 


K 


Kitchen  sinks,  99 


Lavatories,  8,  99 
Lead  connection,  78 

used  in  caulked  joints,  89,  97 
Lead  pipe,  for  water  mains,  80 

preparing  for  wiping,  45 

use  of,  27 

Leaders,  pipes  and  traps,  93 
Long  screws,  115 

M 

Main  sewer,  81 
Mason  trap,  104 


INDEX 


169 


Measurements  of  piping,  146 
Melting  point  of  metals,  21 
Metal,  wiping,  31 
Meter,  reading  gas,  142 


Receptors,  showers,  99 
Refill,  trench,  75,  79 

tunnels,  79 
Right  and  left  couplings,  116 


N 


Nipples,  cutting  and  threading, 

114 
holders,  114 


Oakum,  use  of,  89,  97 
Overcast  joint,  17,  67 


Paste,  13 

Pipe,  brass,  80 
covering,  131 
cutting,  93 
kinds  of,  122 
service,  81 
soil,  location,  95 
steel,  97 
tell-tale,  100 
terra-cotta,  69 
threading,  110 
wrought  iron,  97 

Pipe  laying,  sewer,  71 
water,  78 
in  tunnel,  73 

Piping,  water,  120 
drainage,  135 

Planking,  70,  71 

Pressure,  water,  119 


Rain  leaders,  86 
Reaming,  135 


Sanitary  drains,  91,  92 

Screw-pipe  work,  134 

Seams,  19,  67 

Sewerage,  system  of,  86 

Sewers,  69,  81 

Shoe,  use  of,  75 

Shower  stall,  150 

Sinks,  2 

Soil  pipe,  95,  96 

Soils,  13 

Soldering  iron,  11,  15,  66 

Solders,  21 

Stopcock,  45,  68,  81,  120 

Sulphur,  97 

Swab,  73,  81 


Tables,  angle  measurements,  138, 

139 

brass  ferrules,  160 
fixtures  and  traps,  161 
lead  waste  pipe,  160 
measurements,  116 
roof  drainage,  155 
screw-pipe,  134 
size  of  vent  pipes,  163 

of  waste  pipe,  99 
soil  and  waste  pipe,  158 
standard,  threads,  110 
terra-cotta  pipe,  75 
waste  pipe,  161 
weight  of  cast-iron  pipe,  156 
of  solder  nipples,  160 

Tallow,  13 


170 


INDEX 


Tank,  storage  connections  of,  125 
Tell-tale  pipe,  100 
Terra-cotta  pipe,  69,  75,  83 

cutting,  72 

Testing,  gas  pipe,  148 
Thermostat,  124,  126 
Tinning,  brass,  38,  42,  45 

bib,  59 
Tools,  bending  iron,  15 

caulking  iron,  89 

cold  chisel,  89,  93 

file,  15 

hammer,  15 

joint  runner,  90 

ladle,  29 

pipe  cutters,  113 

rasp,  15 

saw,  15 

shave  hook,  15 

soldering  iron,  15 

tap-borer,  15,  47,  59 

turn  pin,  15 

vise,  111 

yarning  iron,  89 
Traps,  bag,  109 

centrifugal,  109 

cleansweep,  108 

drum,  107 

flask,  108 

house,  104 

intercepting,  92 

mechanical,  109 

non-syphoning,  107 

"S,"  109 

sure-seal,  109 
Trenches,  digging,  70,  81,  87 


Trenches,  refilling,  75 
water  service,  76 
Tubs,  bath,  6 
Tunnels,  73 


U 


Urinals,  99 


Valves,  check,  128 

closet,  4 

safety,  128 
Ventilation  pipe,  101 
Vents,  100-103 

W 

Wash  trays,  86,  99 
Water  connection,  76 

supply,  118 

rivers  and  lakes,  119 
streams  and  brooks,  118 
under  pressure,  119 
underground,  118 
Wiping,  29 

bib,  59 

branch  joints,  49 

cloths,  67 

drum  trap,  61 

2-inch  brass  ferrule,  40 

4-inch  brass  ferrule,  43 

round  joint,  31 

solder,  21 

stopcock,  45 


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